(3) 傅兰雅口译，应祖锡笔述：《佐治刍言》，第一百五十六节，页33。.21
3．Origins and Evolution of the Concept of Rights in Modern China
The concept of rights is the kernel and basis of modern liberalism and jurisprudence．It implies the legitimacy of the autonomy of the individual．This essay aims at exploring the process of the acceptance and the usage of the above concept in the formation of modern Chinese culture．We know that in Chinese the word "quanli"（rights）means both power and interest．And it is no coincidence that Late-Qing Chinese intellectuals' awareness of the legitimacy of the autonomy of the nation（the community）actually came from their efforts to strengthen the nation's power and protect its interests．This is why "quanli" was used to translate "rights"．From 1900 to 1915，the scope of the concept of autonomy was being so expanded that it now covered both the concept of the nation and that of the individual．During the period，the meanings of "quanli" were closer to the meanings of "rights" in the West than it had been before．In Chinese culture，the concept of legitimacy is closely connected with morals while political culture is inseparable from moral judgment．Therefore，it is hard for the Chinese to accept any notion that legitimacy is not an equivalent to morality．New Culture Movement（1915-1924）was the vital period that shaped the landscape of modern Chinese political culture．We choose La Jeunesse as the object of our case study in which the usage of the concept "quanli" was analyzed and categorized to provide necessary statistics．Then，a comparison was made of the usage of "quanli" in La Jeunesse with its usage in literature published in late Qing and the 1911 Revolution．The comparison shows that the concept "quanli" was getting more and more moralized and even became a new standard of morals．It was this evolution of meanings that caused some Chinese intellectuals as represented by the writers of La Jeunesse to accept Marxism-Leninism and reject liberalism.
The research methods we employed take the form of an analysis of both the meanings of the keyword "quanli" and its statistics．And we place the result of this analysis within the context of intellectual history for studying the formation of modern Chinese political culture．In the study，we need to clarify the meanings of certain important concepts in different cultural value systems and explore their translations across cultures．The influence of significant historical events in modern Chinese history on the evolution of the meanings of these concepts is also a factor to be taken into account in the course of performing this study.
4．The Origins，Transformation，and Form of the Chinese Concept of Individuality
With the help of the database，this essay examines the formation and transformation of the Chinese concept of individuality through a keyword analysis of the terms "geren"（individual），"quanli"（rights），and "guomin"（nationals）．We found that the Chinese's acceptance of the Western concept of individuality was based on the individualization of national sovereignty and coincided with individual's becoming the subject of rights．It was the product of the spread of Social Darwinism and the emergence of dualism of Chinese and Western learning from 1900 to 1915．During the New Culture Movement，this dualism of Chinese and Western learning was criticized and Social Darwinism was no longer seen as a universal principle．Therefore，the new generation of intellectuals began to accept the concept of individuality based on common sense，which was different to its Western counterpart．Today，this particular concept of individuality and individualism still dominate the mind of the Chinese.
5．From "Qun" to "Shehui" and "Shehuizhuyi": Transformation of Public Sphere in Modern China from the Perspective of Intellectual History
This essay aims at investigating the formation and disappearance of public sphere by studying the evolution in the meaning of the terms "qun"（community），"shehui"（society），and "shehuizhuyi"（socialism）in modern Chinese history．In traditional Chinese society，public sphere failed to come into existence though village autonomy did exist below the county level where the gentry had dominance．In the late nineteenth century，under the impact of the West，"qun" emerged out of various traditional political terms and became a guiding principle of the society．This phenomenon was closely related to the fact that some intellectuals adopted "Jinwen Jingxue"（the Modern Text School of Confucian classics）as a guideline for the 1898 Reform Movement．As the notion of reform was superseded by that of revolution，"shehui" took the place of "qun" and became the equivalent of the Western term "society"．This marked the debut of public sphere in modern Chinese history，and the subsequent rise of socialism could be seen as the subordination of private realm to public realm．This heralded the expansion of state power and the intensification of bureaucratization in Chinese society in the early twentieth century．In this essay，we not only make use of the analytical method（s）of intellectual history but also draw on the study of linguistics．By employing quantitative analysis as our research method，we hope that this study can throw a new light on the formation of modern Chinese political concepts.
6．From "Tianxia"，"Wanguo" to "Shijie": With a Discussion on the Origins of Chinese Nationalism
The exact time of the disintegration of the traditional Chinese concept of "tianxia"（all under heaven）and the formation of late-Qing nationalism has long been an unsolved question in historical studies．With the database，we conducted frequency count and meaning analysis of certain terms like "tianxia" ，"guojia"（state），"minzu"（nation），"wanguo"（ten thousand countries），"shijie"（world）and "shiji"（century）from 1860 to 1915 and have two findings．First，from 1860 to 1895，most Qing scholar-officials' understanding of the world order was dominated by their China-centered "wanguo guan"（the concept of ten thousand countries），which was a variation of the earlier "tianxia guan"（the concept of all under heaven）．This finding can help us better understand the causes of the 1894-1895 Sino-Japanese War．Second，late-Qing nationalism took shape in 1901．Its emergence was a product of the decentralization of "wanguo guan" after the 1894-1895 Sino-Japanese War．The background to this transformation was cosmopolitanism，in which "tianxia" was replaced by "shijie"．Chinese nationalism was seen as a way to achieve cosmopolitanism from its very beginning．This finding can help us better understand the later forms of Chinese nationalism.
7．From "Gonghe" to "Minzhu": China's Selective Absorption and Reconstruction of Modern Western Political Concepts
This essay discusses the introduction of the Western concept of democracy to China from the late nineteenth century to the first two decades of the twentieth century and the formation of the Chinese concept of democracy．It suggests that the modern Chinese concept of democracy underwent two formational phases．At the beginning，the traditional elite tended to interpret Western democracy in terms of republicanism．During the New Culture Movement，the new generation of intellectuals began a selective reconstruction of the notion of democracy，which resulted in the modern Chinese view of democracy characterized by popular participation and elections．By doing frequency count and meaning analysis of the terms "gonghe"（republicanism）and "minzhu"（democracy），this essay examines the roots of the replacement of the concept of republicanism by democracy from the perspective of intellectual history.
8．From "Fuqiang" to "Jingshi" and "Jingji": The Transformation of the Principle of Social Organization from the Perspective of Intellectual History
This essay aims at examining the internal causes of the May-Fourth intellectuals' acceptance of Marxism-Leninism by analyzing the shift of the lexical meanings of the term "jingji"（economy）in modern China．The earliest meaning of the Chinese term "jingji" was "to rule the world and govern the people" or the ability of governance．It reflects a unique economic perspective that was embraced by Confucianism．In this perspective，society is no more than but a conglomeration of people whose interrelationship is organized by ethical norms．Under such principles for social organization，the rearrangement of society's moral order is regarded as the only way to improve people's living standards．The adoption of the term "jingji" as the translation of "economy"（it can also be viewed as the borrowing of the Japanese term "keizai" ）in modern China has its root in the Confucian blueprint for social organization in which economic order is considered to be an extension of the moral order.
At the early stage of the New Culture Movement（1915-1919），under the influence of French Enlightenment，Chinese intellectuals accepted the Western liberal blueprint for social organization: society is formed by independent individuals whose interrelationship is governed by contracts．In the perspective of such a principle for social organization，economic order has no connection with moral order．It was also in this period that the term "jingji" became detached from morals and since then began to pick up the meaning with which we are familiar today．However，at the same period，China was faced with the failure of the introduction of the Western system of representative government．In addition，common people faced impoverishment，which was created by the first modernization movement that was launched simultaneously with the political reform in late Qing．These events acted as the catalysts of many intellectuals' abandonment of the liberal principle for social organization，which views the society as a group of individuals formed by the new morals and norms．This is the internal cause of the May-Fourth intellectuals' acceptance of Marxism-Leninism in the perspective of intellectual history.
Historical materialism and the surplus value theory are main components of Marxism．And，the surplus value theory is a derivative of the criticism of the Western liberal principle of social organization and explanation of the impoverishment of labors．Leninism carries the idea that society be formed by proletarian elites．This went well with the May-Fourth intellectuals' skepticism towards the Western liberal principle of social structure．In this essay，we try to trace the process of the transformation of Chinese intellectuals' economic perspective and May-Fourth intellectuals' acceptance of Marxism-Leninism through a quantitative analysis of the meanings of the term "jingji" and other relevant terms run in modern Chinese newspapers and journals，especially the eleven volumes of La Jeunesse．We found that the rise of Marxist economic determinism was closely related to Chinese intellectuals' return to the idea that society be formed by ethical norms．The introduction of economic determinism appeared in three stages．The first stage was represented by the publication of the first five volumes of La Jeunesse（1915-1919），in which the term "jingji" became detached from morals and the term "shehui"（society）made its debut．It was also in this stage that the liberal principle for social structure was under the impact of the failure of introducing republicanism into China．The second stage was marked by the publication of volume 6-8 of La Jeunesse（1919-1921）．This stage saw modern social structure greeted with considerable skepticism and the assimilation of historical materialism was accepted．Also，in this stage，intellectuals became aware of the difficulties of common people in making their livings and the impoverishment of labors and peasants．The last three volumes of La Jeunesse，namely，volume 9，quarterly，and irregular issues（1921-1926）were symbols of the third stage，in which the surplus value theory and Leninism prevailed．In this essay，by juxtaposing the process of May-Fourth intellectuals' acceptance of economic determinism and the rise of Marxist economic determinism in the West，we try to explore the mechanism they shared and review the role that deep structure of traditional Chinese culture played in the acceptance of Marxism-Leninism.
9．From "Gewuzhizhi" to "Kexue" and "Shengchanli": A Study of Knowledge Systems and Cultural Relationships from the Perspective of Intellectual History
This essay examines the transformation of the function and structure of the knowledge system of Chinese culture by performing frequency count and meaning analysis of terms such as "gezhi"（gaining knowledge by studying of the principle of matters），"kexue"（science），"changshi"（common sense）and "jishu"（technology）．With the database，we investigate the formation and structure of scientism in modern Chinese political culture．We also examine the differences between Chinese scientism and its Western counterpart.
First，we determined that the term "gezhi" was used to refer to "science" since the late Ming dynasty because of the emphasis on the integration of knowledge and morals by the Cheng-Zhu School of Neo-Confucianism and the formation of the modern Chinese tradition．It was a manifestation of the common-sense rationality of Chinese culture．Second，the term "kexue" was originally used as the short form for "keju"（imperial civil service examination system）and "xuexiao"（school）in Chinese．The replacement of "gezhi" by "kexue" occurred between 1902 and 1905—the same period that the abolition of the imperial civil service examination system took place．We analyzed the reasons why these two events coincided from the perspective of intellectual history，finding that the Qing government had adopted a dualistic ideology that maintained a demarcation between China and the West．It used this ideology as the foundation of its abolition of the imperial civil service examination system and the launching of constitutional reform．This dualism resulted in the divorce of science from morals．Chinese intellectuals thus began to use the amoral "kexue" to denote "science"．
By doing frequency count and meaning analysis of "kexue"，"changshi" and other related terms，we found that as an important concept of modern Chinese culture that took shape during the New Culture Movement，"kexue" has been given two different meanings．First，as modern common sense，it was seen as the revival of a justification structure similar to that of the Cheng-Zhu School of Neo-Confucianism．This justification structure was used to determine the moral values from a knowledge system based on common-sense rationality．"Kexue" was used to attack superstition and served as the basis of a new ideology．Second，it was often used to refer to both science and technology and covered the contents of the Confucian concept of "jingshi zhiyong"（practical application of knowledge to govern the country）．
