注释
[1]在英语中“博士”和“医生”是同一个词。——译注
[2] Michael White,Isaac Newton:The Last Sorcerer,London:Fourth Estate,1997,p.3.凯恩斯还说:“我猜他[牛顿]的卓越之处在于,他的直觉是一个人所能拥有的最强大、最持久的。”Robert Skedelsky,John Maynard Keynes,London:Macmillan,2003,p.458.
[3] Norman Hampson,The Enlightenment,London:Penguin,1990,p.34 and p.36.
[4] James Gleick,Isaac Newton,London:Fourth Estate HarperCollins,2003/2004,pp.101—108;Frank E.Manuel,A Portrait of Isaac Newton,Cambridge,Massachusetts:The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press,1968,p.398n.
[5] Joseph Needham,The Great Titration,London:Allen&Unwin,1969,p.62.
[6] Charles Freeman,The Closing of the Western Mind,London:William Heinemann,2002,p.322.
[7] Ibid.
[8] Ibid.,p.327.
[9] Marcia Colish,Medieval Foundations of the Western Intellectual Tradition:400—1400,New Haven and London:Yale University Press 1997,p.249.
[10] Harry Elmer Barnes,An Intellectual and Cultural History of the Western World,volume 2.From the Renaissance Through the Eighteenth Century,New York:Dover,1937,p.825.
[11] Francis Bacon,Novum Organum,Book 1,aphorism 129,quoted in Joseph Needham et al.,Science and Civilisation in China,vol.1,Cambridge,England:Cambridge University Press,1954,p.19.
[12] Ibid.
[13] Barnes,Op.cit.,p.831.
[14] John Bowle,A History of Europe,London:Secker&Warburg/Heinemann,1979,p.391.
[15] Hagen Schulze,States,Nations and Nationalism,Oxford:Blackwell,1994/1996,p.395.
[16] Ernest Gellner,Plough,Sword and Book,London:Collins Harvill,1988.
[17] Ibid.,pp.19f.
[18] Barnes,Op.cit.,pp.669ff.
[19] Adam Smith,An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations,edited by R.H.Campbell and A.S.Skinner,two volumes,Oxford:Oxford University Press,1976,vol.1,p.265.
[20] Gellner,Op.cit.,p.19.
[21] Carlo Cipolla,Guns and Sails in the Early Phase of European Expansion,1400—1700,London:Collins,1965,pp.5 and 148—149.
[22] Richard Tarnas,The Passion of the Western Mind,London:Pimlico,1991,pp.298ff.
[23] Johan Goudsblom,Fire and Civilisation,London:Allen Lane The Penguin Press,1992,pp.164ff.
[24] Isaiah Berlin,The Sense of Reality:Studies in Ideas and Their History,edited by Henry Hardy,London:Chatto&Windus,1996,pp.168—169.
[25] Jared Diamond,Guns,Germs and Steel,London:Jonathan Cape,1997,pp.200—202.
[26] Jacob Bronowski and Bruce Mazlish,The Western Intellectual Tradition,New York:Harper&Brothers,1960,p.495.
[27] Barnes,Op.cit.,p.720.
[28] Bronowski and Mazlish,Op.cit.,p.259.
[29] Arthur O.Lovejoy,The Great Chain of Being,Cambridge,Massachusetts:Harvard University Press,1936/1964,p.23.
[30] Edward P.Mahoney,‘Lovejoy and the hierarchy of being’,Journal of the History of Ideas,vol.48,1987,p.211.
[31] Lovejoy,Op.cit.,p.55.
[32] Ibid.,p.89.
[33] Ibid.,p.91.
[34] Ibid.,p.201.
[35] Ibid.,p.211.
[36] Ibid.,p.232.
[37] Ibid.,p.241.
[38] Paul Robinson,‘Symbols at an exhibition’,New York Times,12 November 1998,p.12.
[39] Gladys Gordon-Bournique,‘A.O.Lovejoy and the history of ideas’,Journal of the History of Ideas,vol.48,1987,p.209.
[40] 这同黑格尔所称的“哲学命题”相似。See:Donald A.Kelley,‘What is happening to the history of ideas?’,Journal of the History of Ideas,vol.51,1990,p.4.
[41] Philip P.Wiener(editor),Dictionary of the History of Ideas,four volumes,New York:Charles Scribner’s Sons,1973.
[42] Kelley,Op.cit.,pp.3—26.
[43] James Thrower,The Alternative Tradition,The Hague:Mouton,1980.
[44] Jacquetta Hawkes(editor),The World of the Past,London:Thames&Hudson,1963,p.29.
[45] Ibid.,p.33.
[46] James Sackett,‘Human antiquity and the Old Stone Age:the 19th-Century background to palaeoanthropology’,Evolutionary Anthropology,vol.9,issue 1,2000,pp.37—49.
[47] Hawkes,Op.cit.,pp.30—34 and pp.147—148.
[48] Ibid.,p.27.
[49] Glyn Daniel,One Hundred and Fifty Years of Archaeology(second edition),London:Duckworth,1975,pp.25—26.
[50] Bruce G.Trigger,A History of Archaeological Thought,Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,1989,p.53.
[51] Ian Tattersall,The Fossil Trail,Oxford and New York:Oxford University Press,1995/1996,p.8;and Hawkes,Op.cit.,pp.25—26.
[52] Hawkes,Op.cit.,pp.28—29.
[53] Sackett,Op.cit.,p.46.
[54] Peter J.Bowler,Evolution:The History of an Idea(revised edition),Berkeley,Los Angeles and London:University of California Press,1989,pp.32—33.
[55] Trigger,Op.cit.,pp.92—93.
[56] James A.Secord,Victorian Sensation:The Extraordinary Publication,Reception,and Secret Authorship of‘Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation’,Chicago and London:University of Chicago Press,2000,p.146.
[57] Ibid.,p.105.
[58] Peter Burke,‘Images as evidence in seventeenth-Century Europe,’Journal of the History of Ideas,vol.64,2003,pp.273—296.
[59] Burke,Op.cit.,pp.283—284.
[60] Trigger,Op.cit.,p.74.
[61] Ibid.,p.76.
[62] Sackett,Op.cit.,p.48.
[63] Ibid.
[64] George Schaller,The Last Panda,Chicago:University of Chicago Press,1993,p.8.
[65] Robert J.Wenke,Patterns in Prehistory,Oxford:Oxford University Press,1990,pp.119—120.
[66] But see Stephen Oppenheimer,Out of Eden:The Peopling of the World,London:Constable,2003,p.10.
[67] Journal of Human Evolution,vol.43,2002,p.831,reported in New Scientist,4 January 2003,p.16.当然,使用木质工具的行为,如果存在的话,是无法留存下来的。
[68] Paul Mellars and Chris Stringer,The Human Revolution,Edinburgh:Edinburgh University Press,1989,p.70 and chapter six,‘Multi-regional evolution:the fossil alternative Eden’,by Milford H.Wolpoff.现在人们并不认为黑猩猩同人类的关系像以前认定的那样密切。See New Scientist,28 September 2002,p.20.最近的却仍然有争议的证据认为,黑猩猩同人类之间的分离出现在400万到1000万年前。See Bernard Wood,‘Who are we?’,New Scientist,26 October 2002,pp.44—47.
[69] New Scientist,13 July 2002,p.6;and 13 July 2002,p.6.正如伯纳德·伍德指出来的,久拉普沙漠位于东非大裂谷以西150公里处,这意味着,这一地方可能再也不能被认为是早期人类的唯一家园。‘Who are we?’,New Scientist,26 October 2002,p.47.萨赫勒人乍得种后来被认为是早期类人猿的一种,而不是人类的祖先。See Times Higher Educational Supplement,25 October 2002,p.19.2000年,一则报道发现的一块腿骨,被认为是我们距今600万年的“千年祖先”的遗骸,具备直立姿势。New Scientist,15 December 2000,p.5.斯蒂芬·奥本海默说,“后两足直立”最早的“清晰证据”在400万年前的湖畔南方古猿骸骨中可以看见。Oppenheimer,Op.cit.,p.5.
[70] Oppenheimer,Op.cit.,p.11.
[71] Steven Mithen,The Prehistory of the Mind,London:Thames&Hudson,1996,p.238.
[72] Richard G.Klein with Blake Edward,The Dawn of Human Culture,New York:John Wiley,2002,p.56.
[73] 另一理论认为,直立姿势使头部更加暴露,通过头顶更有助于在非洲炎热地带散热。Oppenheimer,Op.cit.,p.5.
[74] 一种最新的理论提出,每10万年发生一次的气候突然变化导致了智力的发展。Times Higher Educational Supplement,4 October 2002,p.29.
[75] Klein with Edward,Op.cit.,p.65.
[76] 这或许同以下事实有关:6500万年前(地球被一颗小行星撞击),恐龙灭绝之后,哺乳动物开始繁盛,这时,早期的生物都是夜间活动,因此,它们需要更大的脑容量对各种感官(触觉、嗅觉、听觉和视觉)获得的信息进行加工。以黑猩猩为例,它们从听觉获得的推断能力似乎比从视觉获得的能力更强。Mithen,Op.cit.,pp.88 and 114.
[77] Oppenheimer,Op.cit.,p.11.
[78] Mithen,Op.cit.,pp.108—109.
[79] Wenke,Op.cit.,p.120.
[80] Mithen,Op.cit.,p.22.能人在一些古生物学家那里又被称为“南方猿人属能人”。See Bernard Wood,‘Who are we?’,New Scientist,26 October 2002,p.47.
[81] Mithen,Op.cit.,p.126.
[82] Oppenheimer,Op.cit.,pp.14—15.John Noble Wilford,‘Experts place ancient toolmaker on a fast track to northern China,’New York Times,5 October 2004,citing a report in the then current Nature.
[83] 最近在格鲁吉亚德玛纳西发现的直立人,其大脑较小,只有600毫升的脑容量。这表明,他们走出非洲,不是因为他们比其他人科动物更聪明,或拥有更好的工具,而是因为,由于气候变化,非洲的自然条件延伸到了欧洲。不过有可能这些例子实际都是儿童。The Times(London),5 July 2002,p.14.
[84] Wenke,Op.cit.,pp.145—147.
[85] Richard Rudgley,The Lost Civilisations of the Stone Age,New York:The Free Press,1999,p.143.
[86] Goudsblom,Fire and Civilisation,Op.cit.,pp.16 and 34.
[87] Ibid.,pp.25—27.
[88] Rudgley,Op.cit.,p.88 and Mellars and Stringer,Op.cit.,p.428.石器技术一个奇特的方面是,在有些遗址,手斧似乎没有被使用过。这促使一些古生物学家提出,这类“工具”的堆积其实是“孔雀羽毛”的早期形态,也就是作为吸引配偶的炫耀性装饰。Klein and Edgard,Op.cit.,p.107.即使在今天,某些爱斯基摩人群体也区分用于捕捉动物的工具和只用于社会场合的工具。Mellars and Stringer.Op.cit.,p.359.直立人有时又被称为非洲“人属罗德西亚种”,但是该名称逐渐不被使用。
[89] Rudgley,Op.cit.,p.163.北卡罗来纳教堂山杜克大学的史蒂文·邱吉尔对尼安德特人骨所做的实验表明,他们使用双臂握住长矛戳刺,而不是投掷长矛,这出现在20万至2万年前。New Scientist,23 November 2002,pp.22—23.古智人又被称为黑莓人和海德堡人。
[90] Rudgley,Op.cit.,p.176.
[91] Ibid.,p.177.
[92] Ibid.,p.226.
[93] Mellars and Stringer,Op.cit.,p.214.
[94] El País(Madrid),12 August 2002,p.1.
[95] Francesco d’Errico,‘The invisible frontier.A multiple species model for the origin of behavioral modernity’,Evolutionary Anthropology,vol.12,2003,pp.188—202.
[96] Mellars and Stringer,Op.cit.,p.156.
[97] 这也许能够解释为什么尼安德特人在短时期内重复使用洞穴:生火,以提高封闭空间的温度和加工肉类。然后,他们再前进。
[98] Rudgley,Op.cit.,p.217.与此同时,这些骸骨只在食肉动物相对较少的区域被发现,也就是说,我们所看见的一切都是其他动物食腐行为的差别性残留。
[99] Mellars and Stringer,Op.cit.,p.217.
[100] Ibid.,p.219.
[101] Paul Mellars,‘Cognitive changes in the emergence of modern humans in Europe’,Cambridge Archaeological Journal,vol.1,number 1,April 1991,pp.63—76.这一观点被安东尼·E.马克斯等在同一刊物后来发表的一项研究中反驳。它表明,尼安德特人制造出的雕刻刀同解剖学意义上现代人类制造的没有区别。‘Tool standardisation in the middle and upper Palaeolithic’,Cambridge Archaeological Journal,vol.11,number 1,2001,pp.17—44.
[102] Mellars,Op.cit.,p.70.
[103] James Steele et al.,‘Stone tools and the linguistic capabilities of earlier hominids’,Cambridge Archaeological Journal,vol.5,number 2,1995,pp.245—256.
[104] Merlin Donald,Origins of the Modern Mind:Three Stages in the Evolution of Culture and Cognition,Cambridge,Massachusetts:Harvard University Press,1991,pp.149—150.
[105] Ibid.,p.163.
[106] Merlin Donald,A Mind So Rare:The Evolution of Human Consciousness,New York:W.W.Norton,2001,p.150.
[107] Donald,Origins of the Modern Mind,Op.cit.,p.210.
[108] Donald,A Mind So Rare,Op.cit.,p.150.
[109] John E.Pfeiffer,The Creative Explosion,New York:Harper&Row,1982.
[110] N.Goren-Inbar,‘A figurine from the Acheulian site of Berekhet Ram’,Mitekufat Haeven,vol.19,1986,pp.7—12.
[111] Francesco d’Errico and April Nowell,‘A new look at the Berekhet Ram figurine:Implications for the Origins of Symbolism’,Cambridge Archaeological Journal,vol.9,number 2,1999,pp.1—27.
[112] 关于布隆伯斯洞的串珠,see Kate Douglas,‘Born to trade’,New Scientist,18 September 2004,pp.25—28;关于长笛,see I.Turk,J.Dirjec and B.Kavur,‘Ali so v slovenjii nasli najstarejse glasbilo v europi?’[The Oldest musical instrument in Europe discovered in Slovenia?],Razprave IV,razreda SAZU(Ljubliana),vol.36,1995,pp.287—293。
[113] Francesco d’Errico,Paolo Villa,Ana C.Pinto Llona and Rosa Ruiz Idarraga,‘A Middle Paleolithic origin of music?Using cave-bear bones to assess the Divje Babel bone“flute”’,Antiquity,vol.72,1998,pp.65—79.
[114] Oppenheimer,Op.cit.,pp.115—117.
[115] Ibid.,p.127.
[116] Mithen,Op.cit.,p.174.
[117] Ibid.,p.175.
[118] Mircea Eliade,A History of Religious Ideas,vol.1,London:Collins,1979,p.17.
[119] The Times(London),17 February 2003,p.7.New York Times,12 November 2002,p.F3.
[120] International Herald Tribune,16 August 2002,pp.1 and 7.
[121] Stephen Shennan,‘Demography and cultural innovation:a model and its implication for the emergence of modern human culture’,Cambridge Archaeological Journal,vol.11,number 1,2001,pp.5—16.
[122] Oppenheimer,Op.cit.,pp.112—113.
[123] Mithen,Op.cit.,p.195.
[124] 同样,尼安德特人大约生活在大冰期,没有创造出我们所了解的任何艺术。这一事实强烈表明,他们的智力水平无法制造此类手工艺品。
[125] Mithen,Op.cit.,p.197.
[126] Ibid.
[127] Rudgley,Ibid.,p.196.
[128] 在以色列的海法附近,迦密山地区的沃德洞穴里,发现了一块距今1.03万至1.28万年的燧石,它的形状具有某种艺术双关意义。从某些角度看,它类似阴茎(这是现代古生物学家的说法),从另外的角度看,它像一对睾丸。如果仔细观察,它实际雕刻的是一对面对面而坐呈性交姿势的情侣。Rudgley,Op.cit.,pp.188—189.
[129] Eliade,Op.cit.,p.20.
[130] Scientific American,November 2000,pp.32—34.
[131] Mellars and Stringer,Op.cit.,p.367.兰德尔·怀特进一步报道说,许多珠子用“奇特”的材料做成—象牙、滑石、蛇纹石。在有些情况下,这些材料从100公里以外运来。这说明当时可能已经有了早期贸易思想。Ibid.,pp.375—376.不同的遗址在相似的出土层呈现出相似的主题(例如海洋贝壳),它表明,早期的美学思想(或许是早期的时尚形态)在不同的民族之间传播。Ibid.,p.377.
[132] Mithen,Op.cit.,p.200.
[133] David Lewis-Williams,The Mind in the Cave,London and New York:Thames&Hudson,2002,p.127.
[134] Ibid.,pp.199—200 and pp.216—217.
[135] Ibid.,pp.224—225.
[136] Ibid.,pp.285—286.
[137] Will Knight and Rachel Nowak,‘Meet our new human relatives’,New Scientist,30 October 2004,pp.8—10.
[138] 实际数字分别为67和82,但是这有点太具体了。Mithen,Op.cit.,p.119.
[139] Mellars and Stringer,Op.cit.,p.343.
[140] Klein with Edgard,Op.cit.,p.19.
[141] 纳尔逊湾的居民在往内陆迁移时,使用鸵鸟蛋壳作为盛水的容器,而那些居住在科拉西斯河附近的人却不这样。
[142] Mithen,Op.cit.,p.250.关于虱子的研究,see Douglas,Op.cit.,p.28。
[143] Mellars and Stringer,Op.cit.,p.439.
[144] Ibid.,p.451.
[145] Oppenheimer,Op.cit.,pp.54 and 68.
[146] Stuart J.Fiedel,The Prehistory of the Americas,Cambridge,England:Cambridge University Press,1987,p.25.
[147] Oppenheimer,Ibid.,p.215.
[148] Ibid.,p.225.
[149] Brian Fagan,The Great Journey,London and New York:Thames&Hudson,1987,pp.188—189.
[150] Ibid.,p.73.
[151] Fiedel,Op.cit.,p.27.
[152] Fagan,Op.cit.,p.79.
[153] 关于南方路线的地图,see Oppenheimer,Op.cit.,p.233。
[154] Fagan,Op.cit.,p.89.
[155] Ibid.,p.92.虽然贝里列赫最有可能成为古印第安人采用的路线,但是久克台石器文化同在北美发现的文化并不完全相像,这也是另一遗址出现的原因—堪察加半岛的乌什基。乌什基是一个面积达100平方米的大型遗址,那里较早期的石器(距今1.2万年)缺乏久克台文化特有的楔形。然而,到后期(距今8800年),出现了久克台工具。这说明了一种复杂的可能性:久克台人赶走了乌什基人,后者不得不迁往别处。Fagan,Ibid.,pp.96—97.如果路线是贝里列赫的话,将意味着早期人类沿着世界的顶端迁徙,沿着东西伯利亚海岸行走或航行(或乘筏),再沿着楚科奇海,到达现在的楚科奇半岛。杰日尼奥夫角离阿拉斯加威尔士王子角50至60英里远。最新的证据把最初的美洲人追溯到日本的绳纹文化。International Herald Tribune,31 July 2001.
[156] Fagan,Op.cit.,pp.108—109.
[157] Ibid.,p.111.
[158] Frederick Hadleigh West,The Archaeology of Beringia,New York:Columbia University Press,1981,pp.156,164 and 177—178.
[159] Fagan,Op.cit.,pp.93ff.
[160] Antonio Torroni,‘Mitochondrial DNA and the origin of Native Americans’,in Colin Renfrew(editor),America Past,America Present:Genes and Language in the Americas and Beyond,Cambridge,England:McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research,University of Cambridge,Papers in the Prehistory of Language,2000,pp.77—87.
[161] 一些证据表明蒙特沃德遗址的年代为距今3.7万年,梅多克罗夫特遗址的年代为距今1.9万年。See Oppenheimer,Op.cit.,pp.287 and 291.但是许多考古学家并不这么认为。
[162] Hadleigh West,Op.cit.,p.87.
[163] Fagan,Op.cit.,p.92;Hadleigh West,Op.cit.,p.132.
[164] 根据新西兰奥克兰大学心理学教授迈克尔·科尔巴利斯的研究,语言可能从手势发展而来。他指出,黑猩猩的手语能力比语言能力更好,它们的大脑中,对应布洛卡氏区的部位与产生和接收手部动作有关。聋人在发展手语时也不会有困难。科尔巴利斯认为,后两足直立使早期人类能够发展出手部和脸部姿势,语言能力只有在这些语法、句法等规则已经在大脑中成形后才发展起来。See Michael Corballis,From Hand to Mouth:The Origins of Language,Princeton,New Jersey,and London:Princeton University Press,2002.有关坎奇的“单词”,see Anil Ananthaswamy,‘Has the chimp taught himself to talk?’,New Scientist,4 January 2003,p.12。
[165] Mellars and Stringer,Op.cit.,p.397.
[166] Oppenheimer,Op.cit.,p.27.
[167] Mellars and Stringer,Op.cit.,p.406.
[168] Ibid.,p.412.
[169] Ibid.,chapter 10,‘New skeletal evidence concerning the anatomy of middle Palaeolithic populations in the Middle East:the Kebara skeleton’,especially p.169.‘Neanderthals not so dumb’,Mark Henderson,The(London)Times,22 June 2004,p.4.
[170] International Herald Tribune,16 August 2002,p.1.
[171] 英国一家人的十五个成员中,所有人都具有严重的语言缺陷,而且所有人都有一种畸变版叉头框P2基因。
[172] Tore Janson,Speak,Oxford and New York:Oxford University Press,2002,p.27.