[173] Les Groube,‘The impact of diseases upon the emergence of agriculture’,in David R.Harris(editor),The Origins and Spread of Agriculture and Pastoralism in Eurasia,London:University College London Press,1996,p.103.
[174] 约翰娜·尼克尔斯计算出167种美洲语言的“库”。斯蒂芬·奥本海默观察到,南美洲的语言比北美洲多得多。他绘制了一张世界各地的图表,对语言的多样性和人类的职业分期进行调整。他的图表基本显示出一条直线。也就是说,在时间深度和语言多样性之间存在一种直接的关系,Oppenheimer,Op.cit.,p.299。关于威廉·萨瑟兰认为世界上有6809种语言的观点,see New Scientist,17 May 2003,p.22。
[175] Rudgley,Op.cit.,p.39.
[176] Terence Grieder,Origins of Pre-Columbian Art,Austin:University of Texas Press,1982.
[177] Oppenheimer,Op.cit.,p.304.
[178] Colin Renfrew and Daniel Nettle(editors),Nostratic:Examining a Linguistic Macrofamily,Cambridge,England:McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research,1999,p.5.
[179] Ibid.,p.130.
[180] Ibid.,pp.12—13.
[181] Nicholas Wade,‘Genes are telling 50000-year-old story of the origins of Europeans’,New York Times,14 November 2000,p.F9.
[182] Renfrew and Nettle(editors),Op.cit.,pp.53—67;Merritt Ruhlen,The Origin of Languages,New York:Wiley,1994.Luigi Cavalli-Sforza and Francesco Cavalli-Sforza,The Great Human Diasporas,New York:Addison-Wesley,1995,pp.174—177 and pp.185—186.
[183] Renfrew and Nettle(editors),Op.cit.,p.68.
[184] Ibid.,pp.68—69.
[185] Ibid.,pp.54 and 398.
[186] Gyula Décsy,‘Beyond Nostratic in time and space’,in Renfrew and Nettle(editors),Op.cit.,pp.127—135.
[187] Steven Pinker and P.Bloom,‘Natural language and natural selection’,Behavioural and Brain Science,vol.13,1990,pp.707—784.Robin Dunbar,Grooming,Gossip and the Evolution of Language,London:Faber&Faber,1996.
[188] Mellars and Stringer,Op.cit.,p.485.
[189] Ibid.,p.459.
[190] Ibid.,pp.468—469.
[191] Donald,Origins of the Modern Mind,Op.cit.,p.215.
[192] Ibid.,p.334.
[193] Ibid.,pp.333—334.
[194] Mellars and Stringer,Op.cit.,p.356.
[195] Alexander Marshack,‘Upper Palaeolithic notation and symbols’,Science,vol.178,1972,pp.817—828.
[196] Franceso d’Errico,‘A new model and its implications for the origin of writing:the La Marche Antler revisited’,Cambridge Archaeological Journal,vol.5,number 2,October 1995,pp.163—206.
[197] Rudgley,Op.cit.,p.74.
[198] Ibid.,p.77.
[199] Ibid.,p.79.‘Three is the magic number alphabets have in common’,New Scientist,12 February 2005,p.16.
[200] Donald,Origins of the Modern Mind,Op.cit.,p.348.
[201] Mithen,After the Ice,Op.cit.,p.54.
[202] Ibid.,pp.12—13.
[203] Chris Scarre,‘Climate change and faunal extinction at the end of the Pleistocene’,chapter 5 of The Human Past,edited by Chris Scarre,London:Thames&Hudson,forthcoming,p.13.
[204] David R.Harris(editor),The Origin and Spread of Agriculture and Pastoralism in Eurasia,London:University College London Press,1996,p.135.
[205] Ibid.,p.144.
[206] Ibid.
[207] Goudsblom,Op.cit.,p.47.
[208] Scarre,Op.cit.,p.11.
[209] Harris(editor),Op.cit.,pp.266—267.有关猪的参考书,see Scarre,Op.cit.,pp.9ff。
[210] New Scientist,10 August 2002,p.17.
[211] Harris(editor),Op.cit.,p.264.Bob Holmes,‘Manna or millstone,’New Scientist,18 September 2004,pp.29—31.
[212] Daniel Hillel,Out of the Earth,London:Aurum,1992,p.73.
[213] Mark Nathan Cohen,The Food Crisis in Prehistory,New Haven:Yale University Press,1977.
[214] Groube,‘The impact of diseases upon the emergence of agriculture’in Harris(editor),Op.cit.,pp.101—129.
[215] V.G.Childe,Man Makes Himself,London:Watts,1941.
[216] Ibid.,pp.554—555.
[217] Jacques Cauvin,The Birth of the Gods and the Origins of Agriculture,Cambridge,England:Cambridge University Press,2000(French publication,1994,translation:Trevor Watkins),p.15.
[218] Ibid.,p.16.
[219] Ibid.,p.22.
[220] Ibid.,pp.39—48.See also:Ian Hodder,The Domestication of Europe,Oxford:Blackwell,1990,pp.34—35,参考相关的理论。
[221] Cauvin,Op.cit.,p.44.关于约旦贝达的曲线房屋,see John Graham Clark,World Prehistory,Cambridge,England:Cambridge University Press,1977,p.50。
[222] Cauvin,Op.cit.,p.69.
[223] Ibid.,p.125.
[224] Ibid.See Erlich Zehren,The Crescent and the Bull,London:Sidgwick&Jackson,1962,关于中东牛墓的早期讨论。
[225] Cauvin,Op.cit.,p.128.
[226] Ibid.,p.132.
[227] Mithen,After the Ice,Op.cit.,p.59.
[228] Fred Matson(editor),Ceramics and Methuen,1966,p.241.
[229] Ibid.
[230] Ibid.,p.242.
[231] Ibid.
[232] Goudsblom,Op.cit.,pp.58—59.
[233] Matson,Op.cit.,p.244.
[234] Mithen,After the Ice,Op.cit.,p.372.
[235] Matson,Op.cit.,p.245.
[236] Ibid.,p.210.
[237] Ibid.,p.211.关于萨拉卜土丘的重要放射性碳时间测定,see Clark,Op.cit.,p.55。
[238] Matson,Op.cit.,p.207.
[239] Ibid.,p.208.
[240] Ibid.,p.220.
[241] Ibid.关于陶器首先出现的另一描述,see also Clark,Op.cit.,pp.61ff。
[242] Mircea Eliade,A History of Religious Ideas,Op.cit.,vol.1,pp.114—115.有些石板墓非常巨大,位于西班牙塞维利亚附近索托的一个墓地长21米,有一块高3.4米的花岗岩石块作为山墙。
[243] Colin Renfrew,Before Civilisation,London:Cape,1973,pp.162—163.
[244] Ibid.,p.164.
[245] Ibid.,p.165.
[246] Alastair Service and Jean Bradbery,Megaliths and Their Mysteries,London:Weidenfeld&Nicolson,1979,p.33.
[247] Ibid.,p.34.
[248] Ibid.,p.35.
[249] Chris Scarre,‘Shrines of the land:religion and the transition to farming in Western Europe’,‘Faith in the Past:Theorising an Archaeology of Religion’,Publication forthcoming,edited by David Whitley,p.6.
[250] Douglas C.Heggie,Megalithic Science:Ancient Maths and Astronomy in North-Western Europe,London and New York:Thames&Hudson,1981,pp.61—64.
[251] Eliade,Op.cit.,p.117.
[252] Service and Bradbery,Op.cit.,pp.22—23.
[253] Marija Gimbutas,The Gods and Goddesses of Old Europe:6500 to 3500 BC,London:Thames&Hudson,1982,p.236.
[254] Ibid.,p.237.
[255] Ibid.,p.177.
[256] Ibid.,p.24.该观点得到了霍德的证实,他还探讨了陶器上的女性象征,Op.cit.,p.61。
[257] 玛丽亚·金布塔斯在她的著作The Gods and Goddesses of Old Europe:6500 to 500 BC中,还探讨了这些原创性思想同希腊人关于他们的神灵的观点之间的联系。特别是,她发现希腊人的女神以阿耳忒弥斯形象流传下来:围绕她的敬拜仪式让人想起旧欧洲古代雕像(例如阿耳忒弥斯·爱勒提亚—生育女神),pp.198—199。
[258] Matson,Op.cit.,p.141.
[259] Ibid.,p.143.
[260] Leslie Aitchison,A History of Metals,London:MacDonald,1960,p.37.
[261] Ibid.
[262] Ibid.,p.38.
[263] Ibid.,p.39.关于苏萨陶器和冶金术的讨论,see Clark,Op.cit.,p.92。
[264] Aitchison,Op.cit.,p.40.
[265] Ibid.,pp.40—41.
[266] Ibid.,p.41.
[267] 詹姆斯·米利把技术知识迅速传播的原因之一归给书写的发明,这一点我们会在第4章讨论。See Theodore Wertime et al.(editors),The Coming of the Age of Iron,New Haven:Yale University Press,1980,p.26.但是还存在别的可能。最早以一定数量出现的真正青铜器(锡青铜)出现在美索不达米亚的乌尔,正好是公元前2000年之前。也有人提出,由于苏美尔人从更东边迁移过来,而且由于在印度河流域摩亨约—达罗也发现了同样的冶金技术,因此,也许苏美尔人首先学会了青铜制造的方法,然后,这一技术向两个方向传播。不过,这一观点在恰当提出之前,需要发现大量的锡储量。Aitchison,Op.cit.,p.62.该理论被以下事实进一步证实:苏美尔的青铜时期仅仅持续了三百年,然后衰落,因为当地的锡储量在枯竭。Wertime,Op.cit.,p.32.
[268] Aitchison,Op.cit.,p.78.
[269] Ibid.,p.82.
[270] Ibid.,p.93.关于短剑变成长剑的插图,see Clark,Op.cit.,pp.179 and 186。
[271] Aitchison,Op.cit.,p.98.
[272] Wertime,Op.cit.,pp.69—70 and 99.
[273] Ibid.,p.100.
[274] Ibid.,p.101.
[275] Ibid.,p.17.
[276] Ibid.,p.102.关于铁器技术影响的更广泛讨论和从黑彩陶瓶摘取的一个希腊铁匠图,see Clark,Op.cit.,pp.185f。
[277] Wertime,Op.cit.,p.103.
[278] Ibid.,p.82.
[279] Ibid.,p.116.Clark,Op.cit.,p.186,讨论了后来铁的廉价成本。
[280] Wertime,Op.cit.,p.121.
[281] Ibid.,p.194.
[282] Ibid.,p.105.
[283] Ibid.,p.82.
[284] Ibid.,pp.197 and 215.Clark,Op.cit.,p.170,讨论了黄金作为盔甲装饰的功能。
[285] Wertime,Op.cit.,p.198.
[286] Jack Weatherford,A History of Money,New York:Three Rivers Press,1997,p.21.
[287] Ibid.,p.27.
[288] Ibid.,p.31.关于早期希腊钱币的讨论,see Clark,Op.cit.,p.194。
[289] Mithen,After the Ice,Op.cit.,pp.67—68.
[290] Weatherford,Op.cit.,p.32.
[291] Ibid.,p.37.
[292] Georg Simmel,The Philosophy of Money,London:Routledge Kegan Paul,1978,p.152.
[293] H.W.F.Saggs,Before Greece and Rome,London:B.T.Batsford,1989,p.62.Petr Charva’t,Mesopotamia Before History,London:Routledge,2002,p.100.(First published as:Ancient Mesopotamia-Humankind’s Long Journey into Civilization by the Oriental Institute,Prague,1993)
[294] Renfrew,Before Civilisation,Op.cit.,p.212,and Rudgley,Op.cit.,p.48.
[295] Gwendolyn Leick,Mesopotamia,London:Penguin,2002,p.xviii.关于布拉克丘和哈姆卡尔丘,see Graham Lawton,‘Urban legends’,New Scientist,18 September 2004,pp.32—35。
[296] Hans J.Nissen,The Early History of the Ancient Near East,Chicago:University of Chicago Press,1988,pp.5 and 71.Charva’t,Op.cit.,p.134.
[297] Nissen,Op.cit.,p.56.佐治亚大学和缅因大学的科学家在《科学》杂志上撰文认为,世界在五千年前温度突降,这可能激发了两个半球复杂文明的发展。对远古鱼骨的研究表明,温度突降造成了第一次厄尔尼诺现象,也就是太平洋上周期性的变暖现象,使每两到七年会出现不寻常的气候模式。在南美洲海岸,鱼群数量大增,这可能促使人们建造大型庙宇(通过集体敬拜,保持捕鱼收获)。但是气候和温度的变化也可能使大量区域变干燥,迫使尤其是旧大陆的人们集中在河谷地带。Daily Telegraph(London),2 November 2002,p.10.
[298] Nissen,Op.cit.,p.67.
[299] Ibid.,p.56.
[300] Ibid.,p.69.
[301] Leick,Op.cit.,p.2.
[302] Ibid.,p.3.
[303] Charva’t,Op.cit.,p.93.
[304] Mason Hammond,The City in the Ancient World,Cambridge,Massachusetts:Harvard University Press,1972,p.38.
[305] Nissen,Op.cit.,p.72.
[306] Ibid.,pp.130—131.
[307] Ibid.,pp.132—133.Charva’t,Op.cit.,p.134.
[308] Hammond,Op.cit.,pp.37—38.Charva’t,Op.cit.,p.134.
[309] Ibid.
[310] 汉斯·尼森警告说,我们对美索不达米亚的“庙宇”和“宫殿”所知甚少,因此在把它们称为“公共建筑物”之外的东西时,其实没有根据。Nissen,Op.cit.,p.98.
[311] 这个特殊单词的使用在一些现代学者中激发了这样一种想法:金字形神塔的建造是为了重现在苏美尔人原始家园的自然山顶建造的类似神龛。这表明,他们曾经从北部和东部的高地迁移至美索不达米亚三角洲。Hammond,Op.cit.,p.39.
[312] Ibid.
[313] Ibid.,p.45.
[314] D.Schmandt-Besserat,Before Writing,vol.1:From Counting to Cuneiform,Austin:University of Texas Press,1992.
[315] Rudgley,Op.cit.,p.50.
[316] Ibid.,p.53.
[317] Ibid.,p.54.对此重构持怀疑态度的法国学者是Jean-Jacques Glassner,The Invention of the Cuneiform:Writing in Sumer,Baltimore and London:Johns Hopkins University Press,2003。
[318] S.M.M.Winn,Pre-writing in South Eastern Europe:The Sign System of the Vinca Culture,circa 4000 BC,Calgary:Western Publishers,1981.
[319] Le Figaro(Paris),3 June 1999,p.16.
[320] Saggs,Op.cit.,p.6.
[321] Ibid.,p.7.
[322] Nissen,Op.cit.,p.74.
[323] Ibid.,p.76.
[324] Ibid.,pp.78—79.
[325] Saggs,Op.cit.,p.83.
[326] Rudgley,Op.cit.,p.70.
[327] Nissen,Op.cit.,p.84.
[328] Saggs,Op.cit.,p.62.
[329] Ibid.,p.65.
[330] Ibid.,pp.66—68.
[331] Ibid.,pp.68—69.
[332] G.Contenau,Everyday Life in Babylon and Assyria,London:Edward Arnold,1954,p.158.
[333] Ibid.,p.160.
[334] Ibid.,pp.162—163.
[335] Leick,Op.cit.,p.66.
[336] Nissen,Op.cit.,p.138.
[337] Leick,Op.cit.,p.73.
[338] Nissen,Op.cit.,p.139.
[339] Leick,Op.cit.,p.75.
[340] David C.Lindberg,The Beginnings of Western Science,Chicago:University of Chicago Press,1992,p.12.
[341] Nissen,Op.cit.,p.140.Charva’t,Op.cit.,p.127.
[342] Saggs,Op.cit.,pp.78—84.
[343] Ibid.
[344] Ibid.,p.81.
[345]指文字书写遵循犁地的路线:如果第一行从右到左,那么第二行从左到右,第三行从右到左,以此类推。
[346] Nissen,Op.cit.,p.136.
[347] Saggs,Op.cit.,p.98.
[348] Ibid.,p.104.大多数抄写员是男性,但也不尽然。阿卡德国王萨尔贡的女儿是乌尔城月神的高级祭司,她成为著名的诗人。当抄写员在文件上签名时,通常要添加父亲的名字和职位,证明自己是城市管理者、庙宇管理者、军官或祭司的儿子。读写能力只限于抄写员和管理者。
[349] Saggs,Op.cit.,p.105.
[350] Ibid.
[351] Ibid.,p.107.
[352] Ibid.,p.110.
[353] Ibid.,p.111.
[354] Ibid.,p.112.
[355] Ibid.,p.103.
[356] Leick,Op.cit.,p.214.
[357] Ibid.,p.82.
[358] Contenau,Op.cit.,p.196.
[359] William B.F.Ryan et al.,‘An abrupt drowning of the Black Sea shelf’,Marine Geology,vol.38,1997,pp.119—126.2002年10月,《海洋地质学》整期讨论了黑海假说问题。许多人持否定态度。
[360] George Roux,Ancient Iraq,London:Penguin,1966,p.109.
[361] Nissen,Op.cit.,p.95.
[362] Ibid.
[363] H.and H.A.Frankfort et al.,Before Philosophy,London:Penguin,1949,p.224.Andrew R.George,The Babylonian Gilgamesh Epic:Introduction,Critical Edition and Cuneiform Texts(2 vols),Oxford:Oxford University Press,2003.
[364] Contenau,Op.cit.,p.204.
[365] Frankfort et al.,Op.cit.,p.225.
[366] Ibid.,p.226.
[367] Contenau,Op.cit.,p.205.
[368] Frankfort et al.,Op.cit.,p.226.
[369] Lionel Casson,Libraries in the Ancient World,New Haven:Yale University Press,2001,p.4.
[370] Ibid.,p.7.
[371] Ibid.,p.13.
[372] Charva’t,Op.cit.,p.101.
[373] Ibid.,p.210.
[374] Ibid.
[375] Leick,Op.cit.,p.90.
[376] Stuart Piggott,Wagon,Chariot and Carriage,London and New York:Thames&Hudson,1992,p.16.
[377] Ibid.,p.21,map.
[378] Ibid.,p.41.
[379] Ibid.
[380] Ibid.,p.44.
[381] Yuri Rassamakin,‘The Eneolithic of the Black Sea steppe:dynamics of cultural and economic development 4500—2300 BC’,in Marsha Levine et al.,Late Prehistoric Exploitation of the Eurasian Steppe,Cambridge,England:McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research Monographs,1999,pp.136—137.
[382] Ibid.,pp.5—58.
[383] Ibid.,p.9.
[384] Quoted in Saggs,Op.cit.,p.176.
[385] Arthur Ferrill,The Origins of War,London and New York:Thames&Hudson,1985,p.15.
[386] Ibid.,pp.18—19.
[387] Ibid.,p.21.
[388] Ibid.,p.26.在苏美尔,书写证明,他们在袭击山区民族时,进行杀戮、掠夺和奴役时没有感到良心不安。表意文字“女奴”是“女人”和“山”的合体。Saggs,Op.cit.,p.176.
[389] Ferrill,Op.cit.,p.46.
[390] Ibid.,pp.66—67.
[391] Ibid.,p.72.以色列考古学家Yigael Yadin使用亚述人墓地浮雕来研究战争围城技术的发展。公元前2000至前1000年军队出现之后,激发各地建造设防工事,围城成为必需的战术。亚述的将领发展出各种专业装备。有带轮子的撞击装置和移动塔楼。碳化钢的发现鼓励了专用杆、矛的发展,它们可以在城墙的薄弱地方进行刮擦。围城从来不是一件容易的事情:许多城市储备了足够维持一年多的水和食物,而这么长时间里,任何事情都有可能发生。(当亚述人在公元前722年围攻耶路撒冷时,他们因为瘟疫而死伤大半。)与其困守等待时机,人们更愿意进攻。See Ferrill,Op.cit.,pp.76—77.
[392] Saggs,Op.cit.,p.156.
[393] Roux,Op.cit.,p.185.
[394] W.G.De Burgh,The Legacy of the Ancient World,London:Penguin,1953/1961,p.25.
[395] Saggs,Op.cit.,pp.156—158.
[396] Roux,Op.cit.,p.187.
[397] Ibid.,p.171.
[398] Ibid.,p.173.
[399] Saggs,Op.cit.,p.160.
[400] Ibid.,p.161.
[401] Ibid.,p.162.
[402] Ibid.
[403] Ibid.,p.165.
[404] Charva’t,Op.cit.,p.155.
[405] Ibid.,p.230.
[406] Ibid.,p.236.
[407] Brian Fagan,From Black Land to Fifth Sun:The Science of Sacred Sites,Reading,Massachusetts:Helix/Perseus Books,1998,pp.244—245.
[408] 孟加拉达罗毗荼部落的冈德人向大地女神献祭。被称为“莫利亚”的人牲,要么从其父母处买来,要么其父母本身也是人牲。“莫利亚”一家过上几年快乐的生活,他们被视为神圣的存在,可以同其他人牲结婚,并获得一块土地作为嫁妆。在献祭前的两个星期,人牲在一个仪式上被剪掉头发,之后是狂欢,“莫利亚”被带到附近一片“尚未被斧头污染过”的树林。人们用黄油和其他油以及鲜花为他涂油,然后让他服用鸦片。他或被碾压死,或被勒死,或在火盆上慢慢烧烤。然后,他被切成块,带到附近的村庄掩埋,以确保好的收成。Mircea Eliade,Patterns in Comparative Religion,London:Sheed&Ward,1958,pp.344—345.
[409]2002年夏天,印度北部报道了一位寡妇跟随死去的丈夫一起埋葬的“殉夫自焚”的事件。关于19世纪孟加拉冈德人的人祭,在注释中有说明。
[410] 如果滴下的眼泪是为了祈求神灵下雨,这被人类学家J.G.弗雷泽认为是纯粹宗教。如果眼泪是为了模仿下雨,那就是交感巫术和宗教的结合:人把自己诱导神灵要做的事情表演出来。See also Eliade,Patterns,Op.cit.,p.345.Miranda Aldhouse Green,Dying for the Gods:Human Sacrifice in Iron Age and Roman Europe,London:Tempus,2001.
[411] B.Washburn Hopkins,Origin and Evolution of Religion,New Haven and New York:Yale University Press,1924,p.116.Royden Keith Kerkes,Sacrifice in Greek and Roman Religions and Early Judaism,London:Adam and Charles Black,1953,p.31.
[412] Hopkins,Op.cit.,p.50.
[413] Eliade,Patterns,Op.cit.,p.86.