关于这种使用猎豹进行捕猎的狩猎方式,最生动而详细的记述来自于欧洲的旅行者。对他们而言,这种狩猎方式非常新奇,因此十分值得评论。[231]根据这些欧洲旅行者在目击后的叙述,两名侍从会陪同戴有头罩和缰绳的猎豹,将之抬上由两头公牛拉动的二轮牛车。在印度乡村,牛车和公牛都很常见且并不具有威胁,因此可以顺利行至离羚羊群200码以内的地方。
图9 手持指挥棒的驯豹师
资料来源:《帝王纪》(Shahnama),此画绘于约公元1444年。克利夫兰艺术博物馆,约翰·L.西弗伦斯基金会(John L.Severance Fund)收藏。
这时,猎豹的头罩和锁链被解去,它跳到地上,弓起身躯,利用能找到的任何掩体,开始偷偷地靠近猎物。一旦羊群显现警觉,猎豹便冲了出去,几步之内便扑向了锁定的猎物。通常而言,猎豹会先用爪子将猎物击倒,之后再抓住猎物的喉咙。在这个时候,驯豹师会赶过来,将被制服的猎物的喉咙割断,之后在瓢中装满血,将之作为给猎豹的直接奖励。之后,驯豹师还会再切下一块腰腿肉给猎豹食用。
图10 二轮牛车上的猎豹
资料来源:塞尔玛·海斯出版社(Selmar Hess),约1900年版,纽约。笔者收藏。
从这些记述中我们可以看出,驯豹师广泛地利用了猎豹天生的捕猎行为模式。在田野狩猎时,驯豹师所做的仅仅是将猎豹带至猎物跟前,松开缰绳,让猎豹循本性而为,之后再人为地终止猎杀。换言之,猎豹通常使用的捕猎技巧被削减了,而不是被加强了。在此前的训练过程中,猎豹唯一习得的新技能便是习惯人类的存在、骑马和乘牛车,以及将自己捕获的猎物献给人类。
尽管早期的驯豹师在经验层面上诠释和理解了将猎豹转变为狩猎搭档的过程,但是在当时的人们看来,这一行为依然很引人注目而且激动人心。很多皇家猎手都迷上了猎豹,甚至可以称得上达到了痴迷的程度。其中,花剌子模沙帖乞失(Khwārazmshāh Tekish,公元1172~1200年在位)的长子选择将乃沙不耳(Nīshāpūr)的封地与木鹿(Marv)的沙漠地区进行交换,原因是后者可以为他的猎豹提供更好的狩猎场。[232]此外,阿克巴大帝从年少时便开始使用猎豹外出畋猎,这一习惯也一直保持至他年老时;阿克巴大帝始终认为,猎豹是“上帝创造的奇迹之一”。[233]忽撒姆·阿杜拉是一位专业驯鹰师,在他的年代,皇家狩猎活动在逐渐消失。可甚至连他也认为,使用猎豹进行狩猎是固有而真正的“皇室运动”。[234]
用于狩猎的猫科动物还包括狞猫。虽然人们一般认为狞猫并不像猎豹那么高贵,但由于其广泛的自然分布,它仍然是狩猎活动的常见选择。即便在今天,我们仍然可以在旧大陆大部分类型的自然环境中——除了雨林地区之外——找到狞猫的踪迹。虽然狞猫由于耳朵呈簇状而常被称为“猎猫(hunting lynx)”,但实际上,狞猫与真正的欧亚山猫(Eurasian lynx)或欧亚山猫的新大陆近亲短尾猫(bobcat/Lynx rufus)之间并无密切的关联。有些分类学家认为,狞猫是其亚属狞猫属(Felis caracal,Schreber 1776)的唯一成员。[235]狞猫的英文名称“caracal”来自于突厥语的“qara qulaq”,意为“黑色的耳朵”。其他国家的语言如蒙古语也借用了这个词。[236]
目前尚不清楚狞猫是在何时何地首次被训练用于狩猎活动的。在阿拉伯语中,狞猫被称为“ al-ar?”。目前可以确定的是,至少在阿拔斯王朝时期,狞猫便已经因其卓越的跳跃能力而被用于捕猎鸟类了。[237]蒙古帝国时期,“猎猫”在欧亚大陆范围内广泛出现,从西西里一直蔓延至中国北部地区。[238]在之后的几个世纪中,使用狞猫进行捕猎的主要中心是印度。在印度,狞猫的称呼包括突厥语的“caracal”和波斯语的“siyāh-gush”,意思亦为“黑色的耳朵”。[239]基本上,狞猫可以被看作缩小版的猎豹,在狩猎时也是戴着头罩,拴着绳子,坐在主人身后一同骑马来到野外,它主要用于捕猎鹤等大型鸟类和野兔、狐狸、羚羊等陆地猎物。[240]据阿布尔·法兹尔(Abū’l Fa?l)记述,阿克巴大帝很喜欢狞猫。此外,阿布尔还补充了重要的信息:“在过去,狞猫会攻击野兔或狐狸,现在则会猎杀黑鹿。”[241]在亚历山大·汉密尔顿的记录中,狞猫会跳到逃跑的猎物背上,之后“向前抓住猎物的肩部,挖出其眼睛,以利于猎手们更加轻松地狩猎”。[242]
狞猫与猎鹰一样,在成功地完成训练之后,其习惯攻击的猎物体形要大于自身原本在野外环境中捕捉的猎物。这也是另外一个通过训练动物来加剧竞争并强化“运动”的例证。
[1] Clutton-Brock,Juliet 1989 A Natural History of Domesticated Mammals. Austin:University of Texas Press.21-33.
[2] 野化(feral)与野生(wild)的区别:野化一般指家养动物被放至野外生活,这种动物一般并不是该自然环境中的原有物种;野生动物一般指在野生状态下生活的本地物种。
[3] Caras,Roger 1996 A Perfect Harmony:The Intertwining Lives of Animals and Humans Throughout History. New York:Simon and Schuster.20-21.
[4] 一些狩猎指南中有关于捕象活动的讨论,请参见Rudra Deva. ?yainika ?ātram:The Art of Hunting in Ancient India. Trans. M.M.Haraprasad Shastri. Delhi:Eastern Book Linkers,1982.86 (para.44)。
[5] Pliny. Natural History. Trans. H.Rockham and W.H.S. Jones. Loeb Classical Library. Cambridge,Mass.:Harvard University Press,1960-67.VIII.218,and Zeuner,Frederick E. 1963 A History of Domesticated Animals. New York:Harper and Row.401-3.
[6] Frederick Ⅱ of Hohenstaufen. The Art of Falconry,Being the De Arte Venandi cum Avibus. Trans. Casey A.Wood and F.Marjorie Fyfe. Stanford,Calif.:Stanford University Press,1961.5.
[7] Jūzjānī/L Jūzjānī,?abaqāt-i nā?irī. Ed. W.Nassau Lees. Bibliotheca Indica 44. Calcutta:College Press,1864.258 and Jūzjānī/R Jūzjānī,?abaqāt-i nā?irī. Trans. H.G.Raverty. Reprint New Delhi:Oriental Book Reprint,1970.II,756.
[8] ?āfī?-i Tanīsh fī?-i Tanīsh Bukhārī. Sharaf nāmah-shāhī. Ed. and trans. M.A.Salakhetdina. Moscow:Nauka,1987-88.I,14a,波斯语文本,and 55,俄语译本。
[9] 例如,请参见Yūsuf Kha ?ājib. Wisdom of Royal Glory(Kutadgu Bilig):A Turko-Islamic Mirror for Princes. Trans. Robert Dankoff. Chicago:University of Chicago Press,1983.214-15。
[10] 相关建议请参考Kai ,84。
[11] Vilà,Charles et al. 1997 “Multiple and Ancient Origins of the Domesticated Dog.” Science 276:1687-89.
[12] 最近的DNA研究表明,最古老的品种来自于亚洲东北部地区,包括哈士奇、秋田犬和松狮犬等。请参见Parker,Heidi G. et al. 2004 “Genetic Structure of the Purebred Dog.” Science 304,5674(May):1160-64。
[13] Clutton-Brock,Juliet 1995 “Origins of the Dog:Domestication and Early History.” In Serpell,1995,pp.7-20.
[14] Dio Chrysostom. Discourses. Trans. H.Lamar Crosby and J.W.Conoon. Loeb Classical Library. Cambridge,Mass.:Harvard University Press,1932-51.1.19-20.另请参见Pliny. Natural History. Trans. H.Rockham and W.H.S. Jones. Loeb Classical Library. Cambridge,Mass.:Harvard University Press,1960-67.VIII.142-45。
[15] Campany,Robert Ford 1996 Strange Writings:Anomaly Accounts in Early Medieval China. Albany:State University of New York Press.244 and 388,and Gernet,Jacques 1985 China and the Christian Impact:A Conflict of Cultures. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.148.
[16] ARE Breasted,James Henry,trans. Ancient Records of Egypt. Chicago:University of Chicago Press,1908.IV,255.
[17] MTZZ Mathieu,Rémi,trans. Le Mu tianzi zhuan:Translation annotée,étude critique. Paris:Presses universitaires de France,1978.46,中文文本 and 24,法语译本;Xenophon,Cyn. Xenophon. Cynegeticus. In Xenohphon,SM. VII.5;al-Man?ūr Al-Mansur’s Book on Hunting. Trans. Sir Terence Clark and Muawiya Derhalli. Warminster:Aris & Phillips,2001.17 and 32;and Abū’l Fa?l,AA Abū’l Fa?l. The Akbār-ī Trans. H.Blochmann. Reprint Delhi:Atlantic Publishers,1979.I,301。
[18] 前王朝时期(Predynastic period),即约公元前4350~前3150年时的古埃及。
[19] 最好的指导性文献请参见Brewer,Douglas J.,Donald B.Redford,and Susan Redford 1994 Domestic Plants and Animals:The Egyptian Origins. Warminister:Aris and Phillips.114-17;Osborn,Dale J. and Jana Osbornova 1998 The Mammals of Ancient Egypt. Warminister:Aris and Phillips.57-68;and Epstein,Hans J. 1971 The Origins of the Domesticated Animals of Africa. Vol. 1. New York:Africana Publishing Company.I,147-71。
[20] Allen,M.J.S. and G. R.Smith 1975 “Some Notes on Hunting Techniques and Practices in the Arabian Peninsula.” Arabian Studies 2:120-25,and Epstein,Hans J. 1971 The Origins of the Domesticated Animals of Africa. Vol. 1. New York:Africana Publishing Company.I,58-71.
[21] Houlihan,Patrick F. 1996 The Animal World of the Pharaohs. London:Thames and Hudson.76-77,and Fiennes,Richard and Alice Fiennes 1970 The Natural History of Dogs. Garden City,N.Y.:The Natural History Press.101-9.
[22] el-Habashi 1992,31-32 and 142-44;Altenmüller,Hartwig 1967 Darstellungen der Jagd in alten ?gypten. Hamburg and Berlin:Verlag Paul Parey.13-16 and illus. on 14;ANE Pritchard,James B.,ed.,The Ancient Near East:An Anthology of Texts and Pictures. Princeton,N.J.:Princeton University Press,1973.I,pl. 41,后为284。
[23] Diodorus Diodorus of Sicily. Trans. C.H.Oldfather et al. Loeb Classical Library;Cambridge,Mass.:Harvard University Press,1935-57.V.3.2.
[24] Fiennes,Richard and Alice Fiennes 1970 The Natural History of Dogs. Garden City,N.Y.:The Natural History Press.32,36-38,and 111-16,and Parrot,Andre 1961 The Arts of Assyria. New York:Golden Press.64,fig. 68.
[25] Herodotus. The Persian Wars. Trans. George Rawlinson,New York:Modern Library,1942.I.140,and ZA,Vendidād,IX.
[26] 有关这类态度的例子,请参见SOS O’Kane,John,trans. The Ship of Sulaiman. New York:Columbia University Press,1972.37。
[27] BF Meisami,Julie Scott,trans. The Sea of Precious Virtues(Bahr ):A Medieval Islamic Mirror for Princes. Salt Lake City:University of Utah Press,1991.144-46.
[28] Ahsan,Muhammad Manazir 1979 Social Life Under the Abbasids,786-902 AD. London:Longman.211-13.有关这类赞美的例子,参见Usāmah Ibn Munqidh. An Arab-Syrian Gentleman and Warrior in the Period of the Crusades:Memoirs of Usāmah Ibn Munqidh. Trans. Philip K.Hitti. Princeton University Press,1987.137-38。
[29] Chardin,John. Travels in Persia,1673-77. 1927. Reprint New York:Dover,1988.182.
[30] Bar Hebraeus. The Chronography of Gregory Abū’l Faraj,Trans. Ernest A.Wallis Budge. London:Oxford University Press,1932. Vol. Ⅰ.119;Usāmah Ibn Munqidh. An Arab-Syrian Gentleman and Warrior in the Period of the Crusades:Memoirs of Usāmah Ibn Munqidh. Trans. Philip K.Hitti. Princeton University Press,1987.230 and 241;Herbert,Sir Thomas. Travels in Persia,1627-1629. Ed. William Foster. 1929. Reprint Freeport,N.Y.:Books for Libraries Press,1972.81 and 243;Jahāngīr. Tūzuk-i Jahāngīrī or Memoirs of Jahāngīr. Trans. Alexander Rogers,ed. Henry Beveridge. Reprint Delhi:Munshiram Mansharlal,1978.I,289;and Riasanovsky,Valentin A. 1965a Customary Law of the Nomadic Tribes of Siberia. Indiana University Uralic and Altaic Series 48. Bloomington:Indiana University.11.
[31] P.Mundy Mundy,Peter. The Travels of Peter Mundy in Europe and Asia,1608-1617. Ed. Sir Richard Carnac Temple. Reprint Nendeln:Kraus Reprint,1967-72.II,112;Fryer,John. A New Account of East India and Persia,Being Nine Year’s Travels,1672-1681. Ed. William Crooke. 1909. Reprint Millwood,N.Y.:Kraus Reprint,1967.I,280,and II,305;Jahāngīr. Tūzuk-i Jahāngīrī or Memoirs of Jahāngīr. Trans. Alexander Rogers,ed. Henry Beveridge. Reprint Delhi:Munshiram Mansharlal,1978.I,126;and Ovington,J. A Voyage to Surat in the Year 1689. Ed. H.G.Rawlinson. Oxford:Oxford University Press,1929.160.
[32] Vis. Wardrop,Oliver,trans. Visramiani:The Story of the Loves of Vis and Ramin. London:Royal Asiatic Society,1966.68 and 105.
[33] Smith,G. Rex 1980 “The Arabian Hound,the Salūqī:Further Considerations of the Word and Other Observations on the Breed.” Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 43:459-65,and Viré,Fran?ois 1973 “A propos des chiens de chasse ?alūqī et za?āri.” Revue des études islamiques 91:231-36.
[34] Ahsan,Muhammad Manazir 1979 Social Life Under the Abbasids,786-902 AD. London:Longman.211-13,and KB/P Phillot,D.C. and R.J.Azoo,trans. “Chapters on Hunting Dogs and Cheetas,being an Extract from the Kitāb al-Bayzarah.” Journal and Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal n.s. 3(1907):47.
[35] al-Man?ūr Al-Mansur’s Book on Hunting. Trans. Sir Terence Clark and Muawiya Derhalli. Warminster:Aris & Phillips,2001.28-29,31,and 33-48.
[36] Munshī,Iskander. History of Shah . Trans. Roger Savory. Boulder,Colo.:Westview Press,1978.II,1321.
[37] Usāmah Ibn Munqidh. An Arab-Syrian Gentleman and Warrior in the Period of the Crusades:Memoirs of Usāmah Ibn Munqidh. Trans. Philip K.Hitti. Princeton University Press,1987.227.参见G.Mundy Mundy,Godfrey Charles. Pen and Pencil Sketches in India:Journal of a Tour in India. 3rd ed. London:John Murray,1858.274。
[38] Xenophon,Cyr. Xenophon. Cyropaedia. Trans. Walter Miller. Loeb Classical. Library. Cambridge,Mass.:Harvard University Press,1994.V.1-7;Psellos,376;Ambrose,H Ambrose,St. Hexameron,Paradise,and Cain and Abel. Trans. John Savage. New York:Fathers of the Church,1961.,VI.23;and Hicks,Carola 1993 Animals in Early Medieval Art. Edinburgh:Edinburgh University Press.154,175,207-8,212,213,237,and 267.
[39] Fiennes,Richard and Alice Fiennes 1970 The Natural History of Dogs. Garden City,N.Y.:The Natural History Press.18-22;Thurston,Mary Elizabeth 1996 The Lost History of the Canine Race. Kansas City:Andrews and McMeel.75-79;Walch,Karl 1997 “Hunting Dogs.” In Blüchel 1997,1:72-103;and Cummins,John 1988 The Hound and the Hawk:The Art of Medieval Hunting. New York:St. Martin’s Press.12-30.
[40] Quintus Curtius. History of Alexander. Trans. John C.Rolfe.IX.i.31-34.
[41] CATCL Mair,Victor H.,ed. The Columbia Anthology of Traditional Chinese Literature. New York:Columbia University Press,1994.420;SJ Sima Qian. Shiji. Beijing:Zhonghu shuju,1982.ch. 53,2015;and SJH Sima Qian. Records of the Grand Historian:Han Dynasty. Rev. ed. Trans. Burton Watson,New York:Columbia University Press,1993.93.关于商代的猎犬信息,请参见Fiskesj?,Magnus 2001 “Rising from Blood-Stained Fields:Royal Hunting and State Formation in Shang China.” Bulletin of the Museum of Far Eastern Antiquities 73:109 and 120。
[42] HS Ban Gu. Hanshu. Beijing:Zhonghua shuju,1990.ch. 99c,4176;HS/D Pan Ku. The History of the Former Han Dynasty. Trans. Homer Dubs. Baltimore:Waverly Press,1938-55.III,430;and ZGC Chan-kuo ts’e. Rev. ed. Trans. J.I.Crump. Ann Arbor:Center for Chinese Studies,University of Michigan,1996.282.
[43] White,Lynn,Jr. 1939 Tomb Title Pictures of Ancient China. Toronto:University of Toronto Press. Whittow,Mark 1996 The Making of Byzantium. Berkeley:University of California Press.51,pls. 7,9,11,16,18-21,and 153.
[44] Bielenstein,Hans 1980 The Bureaucracy of Han Times. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.83.
[45] Keller,Otto 1963 Die Antike Tierwelt. 2 vols. 1909. Reprint Hildesheim:Georg Olms.II,23-26.
[46] Capart,Jean 1930 “Falconry in Ancient Egypt.” Isis 14:222,and Keimer,Ludwig 1950 “Falconry in Ancient Egypt.” Isis 41:52.
[47] Houlihan,Patrick F. 1986 The Birds of Ancient Egypt. Warminster:Aris and Phillips.46-49,and 140;Houlihan,Patrick F. 1996 The Animal World of the Pharaohs. London:Thames and Hudson.112,138,144,and 160-61;Brewer,Douglas J.,Donald B.Redford,and Susan Redford 1994 Domestic Plants and Animals:The Egyptian Origins. Warminister:Aris and Phillips.120-21;el-Habashi 1992,34-35,56-59,82-83,140-41,and 151;and Decker,Wolfgang 1992 Sports and Games of Ancient Egypt. New Haven,Conn.:Yale University Press.163-67.
[48] Meissner,Bruno 1902 “Falkenjagden bei den Babyloniern und Assyriern.” Beitrage zur Assyriologie und semitischen Sprachwissenschaft 4:418-22.
[49] Brentjes,Burchard 1965 Die Haustierwerdung im Orient. Wittenburg:A.Ziemsen.79-81,and Parrot,Andre 1961 The Arts of Assyria. New York:Golden Press.62,fig. 66 and 63,fig. 67.
[50] Despite its age,the best general guide is still Epstein 1942-43,497-508.
[51] Aelian. On the Characteristics of Animals. Trans. A.F.Scholfield. Loeb Classical Library. Cambridge,Mass.:Harvard University Press,1959.IV.26.
[52] Erkes,Eduard 1943 “Vogelzucht im alten China.” T’oung-pao 37:19;Eberhard,Wolfram 1942 Lokalkulturen im alten China. Vol. 1,Die Lokalkulturen des Nordens und Westens. Leiden:E.J. Brill.66-67;and White,Lynn,Jr. 1939 Tomb Title Pictures of Ancient China. Toronto:University of Toronto Press. Whittow,Mark 1996 The Making of Byzantium. Berkeley:University of California Press.59,and pls. 28,108,and 109.
[53] Laufer,Bertold 1909 Chinese Pottery of the Han Dynasty. Leiden:E. J. Brill.231-34.
[54] 吕光(公元337~399),字世明,氐族,十六国时期后凉的创建者,386~399年在位。原为前秦将领,骁勇善战。史载其幼年时不乐读书,唯好鹰马。
[55] Jshu/M Mather,Richard B.,trans. Biography of Lü Kuang [from the Jinshu]. Berkeley:University of California Press,1959.28.
[56] Shaanxi Sheng Bowuguan 1974a Tang Li Xian mu bihua. Beijing:Wenwu Chubanshe.pt. 9;Schafer,Edward H. 1959 “Falconry in T’ang Times.” T’oung-pao 46:297-99;Benn,Charles 2002 China’s Golden Age:Everyday Life in the Tang Dynasty. Oxford:Oxford University Press.171-72;and Ennin’s Diary:The Record of a Pilgimage to China in Search of the Law. Trans. Edwin O.Reischauer. New York:Ronald,1955.401.
[57] NG Aston,W.G.,trans. Nihongi. Reprint London:Allen and Unwin,1956.XI.27-28 (pt.1,293-94).
[58] Aristotle,HA Aristotle. History of Animals. In Aristotle,CWA,IX.36,and Aristotle,MTH Aristotle. On Marvelous Things Heard. In Aristotle,CWA,Ⅰ.118.
[59] Pliny. Natural History. Trans. H.Rockham and W.H.S. Jones. Loeb Classical Library. Cambridge,Mass.:Harvard University Press,1960-67.X.17-18.23,and Aelian. On the Characteristics of Animals. Trans. A.F.Scholfield. Loeb Classical Library. Cambridge,Mass.:Harvard University Press,1959.II,40 and 42.