[32] Erickson,Susan N. 1994. “Money Trees of the Eastern Han Dynasty” Bulletin of the Museum of Far Eastern Antiquities 66:37.
[33] Harper,Donald. 1994. “Resurrection in Warring States Popular Religion” Taoist Resources 5.2:14.
[34] 《汉书》卷三八,第1991~1996页。
[35] 对该祠庙建立的时间我们不得而知,但是它在1世纪前已经存在。当时城阳景王深受齐巫推崇,齐地一直以来就以巫文化著称。《后汉书》卷一一,第479页;卷四二,第1451页。
[36] 应劭:《风俗通义校释》怪神第九《城阳景王祠》,第333~334页;《三国志》卷一,第4页。同时参见Stein,Rolf. 1979. “Religious Taoism and Popular Religion from the Second to the Seventh Centuries” In Welch,Holmes,and Anna Seidel,ed. 1979. Facets of Taoism:Essays in Chinese Religion. New Haven,Conn.:Yale University Press:80。
[37] 干宝:《新校搜神记》卷五《蒋山祠(一)》,第35页。与蒋子文崇拜及其在钟山的祠庙有关的其他传说,参见干宝《新校搜神记》卷五《蒋山祠(二)》至《蒋山祠(五)》,第35~37页。
[38] 《宋书》卷一七,第488页。同时参见Stein,Rolf. 1979. “Religious Taoism and Popular Religion from the Second to the Seventh Centuries” In Welch,Holmes,and Anna Seidel,ed. 1979. Facets of Taoism:Essays in Chinese Religion. New Haven,Conn.:Yale University Press:79~80。
[39] 关于伍子胥的传说和伍子胥崇拜的论述,参见Johnson,David. 1980. “The Wu Tzu-hsuPien-wen and Its Sources” Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 40.1:93-156;40.2:465-505。关于项羽崇拜的研究,参见Miyakawa Hisayuki 宮川尚志. 1964. Rikuchō shi kenkyū:shūkyō 六朝史研究·宗教篇.Kyoto 京都:Heirakuji shoten 平楽寺書店:386-414。
[40] 根据道教教义,在天师道于2世纪末创立之前,汉朝的宗教信仰被所谓的六天(鬼神之主)淫祀所支配。“六天故气”指令人厌恶、贪得无厌的妖魔,他们嗜好血腥、腐烂的祭品。在道教的语境中,六天指代邪魔之力,与之相对的是代表善神的三天。对这些道教术语源头的讨论,参见Kobayashi Masayoshi小林正美. 1991. Rikuchō dōkyōshi kenkyū 六朝道教史研究.Tokyo東京:Sōbunsha 創文社:498-503。
[41] “五伤之鬼”极有可能是对蚩尤及其五兵的隐喻。蚩尤当然是蚩尤信仰的崇拜对象(见第一章,页边码第39~41页)。
[42] 《陆先生道门科略》(道藏 1119),第1页上栏。英文翻译引自Nickerson,Peter. 1996. “Abridged Codes of Master Lu for the Daoist Community” In Lopez,ed.,1996:352。
[43] 在本书中,“道教”一词所指的始终只有从2世纪的天师道中衍生的宗教传统。对于西方读者来说,“道教”几乎总让人联想到与东周时期的《道德经》和《庄子》有关的神秘主义哲学。这一通常被学者称为“玄学”的神秘主义传统在更晚的3世纪初期,也就是汉王朝覆灭之后才开始发展,它与我们本书的讨论无关。
[44] 关于天师道以及道教早期历史的一般性综述,参见Robinet,Isabelle. 1997. Taoism:Growth of a Religion. Stanford,Calif.:Stanford University Press:53-77;对该话题更加具体化的研究,参见Fukui 1952;ōfuchi Ninji大淵忍爾. 1991. Shoki no Dōkyō 初期の道教.Tokyo 東京:Sōbunsha 創文社;Kleeman,Terry F. 1998. Great Perfection:Religion and Ethnicity in a Chinese Millennial Kingdom. Honolulu:University of Hawaii Press。关于《道德经》的可能作者老子的神化及其转化为救世主老君的过程的讨论,参见Seidel,Anna. 1969. Le divinisation de Lao tseu dans le taoisme des Han. Paris:école Fran?aise d’Extrême Orient。
[45] Cedzich,Ursula-Angelika. 1993. “Ghosts and Demons,Law and Order:Grave Quelling Texts and Early Taoist Liturgy” Taoist Resources 4.2:27;Nickerson,Peter. 2000. “The Ritual of ‘Petitioning Celestial Officials’ in Celestial Master Taoism:A Re-examination of the Problem of Taoism and Popular Religion” Paper presented at the International Conference on Religion and Chinese Society. Chinese University of Hong Kong,Hong Kong,May 29-June 2.
[46] 《三天内解经》(道藏 1196)上卷,第6页上栏。同时参见Stein,Rolf. 1979. “Religious Taoism and Popular Religion from the Second to the Seventh Centuries” In Welch,Holmes,and Anna Seidel,ed. 1979. Facets of Taoism:Essays in Chinese Religion. New Haven,Conn.:Yale University Press:68-71。
[47] Robinet,Isabelle. 1997. Taoism:Growth of a Religion. Stanford,Calif.:Stanford University Press:60.
[48] Cadzich 1993:32.
[49] Maruyama Hiroshi丸山宏. 1986. “Sei’ichi dōkyōno jōshō girei ni tsuite:‘chōshōshō’ o chūshin to shite正一道教の上章儀礼について:「冢訟章」を中心として” Tōhō shūkyō東方宗教 68:44-64;Strickmann,Michel. 1981. Le Taoisme du Mao Chan,chronique d’une révélation. Paris:Presses Universitaires de France:144-159;Nickerson,Peter. 1994. “Shamans,Demons,Diviners and Taoists:Conflict and Assimilation in Medieval Chinese Ritual Practice(c.a.d.100-1000)” Taoist Resources 5.1:52-55.一些道教领域的学者如劳格文(Lagerwey,John. 1987. Taoist Ritual in Chinese Society and History. New York:Macmillan)对授箓道士和巫做了严格的区分,用后者形容未经培训(通常也没有文化)的被灵体上身的灵媒。在本书中,我用巫一般性地指代在神灵与人类祈求者间起到居间协调作用的任何宗教职业者。
[50] 对中国佛教早期历史的杰出研究,参见Zürcher,Eric. 1959. The Buddhist Conquest of China. Leiden:E.J.Brill。
[51] 在佛教教义中,兜率天是欲界六天的第四层天。
[52] 五趣又称五道,指众生转世投生的五种去处。另一种说法是六道,即五趣再加上阿修罗道。
[53] Bokenkamp,Stephen R. 1989. “Death and Ascent in Ling-pao Taoism” Taoist Resources 1.2:1-17.
[54] 对上清派早期发展史的论述,参见Strickmann,Michel. 1977. “The Mao Shan Revelations:Taoism and the Aristocracy” T’oung Pao 63:1-64,Strickmann,Michel. 1981. Le Taoisme du Mao Chan,chronique d’une révélation. Paris:Presses Universitaires de France;Robinet,Isabelle. 1997. Taoism:Growth of a Religion. Stanford,Calif.:Stanford University Press:114-148。55.Strickmann,Michel. 1977. “The Mao Shan Revelations:Taoism and the Aristocracy” T’oung Pao 63:6-9;Robinet,Isabelle. 1984. La révélation du Shangqing dans l’histoire du taoisme. Paris:école Fran?aise d’Extrême Orient,I:64.
[55] Nickerson,Peter. 1994. “Shamans,Demons,Diviners and Taoists:Conflict and Assimilation in Medieval Chinese Ritual Practice(c.a.d.100-1000)” Taoist Resources 5.1:63-66.
[56] Strickmann,Michel. 1977. “The Mao Shan Revelations:Taoism and the Aristocracy” T’oung Pao 63:15-30;Robinet,Isabelle. 1984. La révélation du Shangqing dans l’histoire du taoisme. Paris:école Fran?aise d’Extrême Orient,I:127-128.
[57] Robinet,Isabelle. 1984. La révélation du Shangqing dans l’histoire du taoisme. Paris:école Fran?aise d’Extrême Orient,I:59-70.
[58] 关于灵宝派早期历史的论述,参见Bokenkamp,Stephen R. 1983. “Sources of the Ling-pao Scriptures” In Tantric and Taoist Studies in Honour of R.A.Stein,2:434-486. Ed. Michel Strickmann. Bruxelles:Institut Belge des Hautes études Chinoises;Robinet,Isabelle. 1997. Taoism:Growth of a Religion. Stanford,Calif.:Stanford University Press:149-183。
[59] 《度人经》全称《太上洞玄灵宝无量度人上品妙经》。关于其经文构成的讨论,参见Bokenkamp,Stephen R. 1983. “Sources of the Ling-pao Scriptures” In Tantric and Taoist Studies in Honour of R.A.Stein,2:434-486. Ed. Michel Strickmann. Bruxelles:Institut Belge des Hautes études Chinoises。对其的翻译,参见Bokenkamp,Stephen R. 1997. Early Daoist Scriptures. Berkeley:University of California Press:373-438。
[60] Robinet,Isabelle. 1997. Taoism:Growth of a Religion. Stanford,Calif.:Stanford University Press:164.
[61] Zürcher,Eric. 1980. “Buddhist Influence on Early Taoism:ASurvey of Scriptural Evidence” T’oung Pao 66.1-3:102.
[62] Kamitsuka Yoshiko神冢淑子. 1996. “The Concept of Màra and the Idea of Expelling Demons” Taoist Resources 6.2:44-50.
[63] 对志怪文体历史性而非虚构性的讨论,参见Campany,Robert F. 1996b. Strange Writing:Anomaly Accounts in Early Medieval China. Albany:State University of New York Press:161-201。
[64] Campany,Robert F. 1996b. Strange Writing:Anomaly Accounts in Early Medieval China. Albany:State University of New York Press:343-362.
[65] Campany,Robert F. 1991. “Ghosts Matter:The Culture of Ghosts in Six DynastiesZhiguai” Chinese Literature:Essays,Articles,Reviews 13:15-34.
[66] 对大分裂时期的故事的引用,参见Campany,Robert F. 1996b. Strange Writing:Anomaly Accounts in Early Medieval China. Albany:State University of New York Press:247。镇墓之像被赋予生命的情节在唐朝的鬼怪故事中也有出现,参见Kobayashi Taiichirō 小林太市郎. 1947. Kan Tō kozoku to myōki dōgu 漢唐古俗と明器土偶. Tokyo 東京:Ichijō shobō 一条書房:192-193。在战国时期和汉朝十分典型的带角护墓兽像在大分裂时期已经被长着人脸的怪兽取代,从6世纪起则全部变为了人类武士像。
[67] 对《太上洞渊神咒经》的讨论,参见Mollier,Christine. 1991. Une apocalypse taoiste du Ve siècle:Le Livre des Incantations Divines des Grottes Abyssales.Paris:Collège de France/Institut des Hautes études Chinoises;Strickmann,Michel. 2002. Chinese Magical Medicine. Stanford,Calif.:Stanford University Press:89-97。这些具有神启性质的教派不同于大分裂时期三大主流道家经学传统(天师道、灵宝派、上清派),他们把对太平之日的渴求融入了对天国而非尘世奖励的寻求。一些佛教“异端”教派也出现了与此类似的倾向,相关讨论见Zürcher 1981。
[68] 对“种民”概念的介绍,参见Kobayashi Masayoshi小林正美. 1991. Rikuchō dōkyōshi kenkyū 六朝道教史研究.Tokyo東京:Sōbunsha 創文社:336-341;Bokenamp 1997:157。
[69] Mollier,Christine. 1991. Une apocalypse taoiste du Ve siècle:Le Livre des Incantations Divines des Grottes Abyssales.Paris:Collège de France/Institut des Hautes études Chinoises:47-52,72-77.
[70] 《太上洞渊神咒经》(道藏 335)卷一,第9页上栏。
[71] Shinohara Hisao篠原寿雄. 1977. “Dōkyōteki kishin:oni ni kansuru oboegaki 道教の鬼神―鬼に関する覚書―” In Yoshioka hakase kanreki kinen Dōkyōkenkyū ronshū吉岡博士還暦記念道教研究論集,pp.225-247.Tokyo 東京:Kokusho kankōkai 国書刊行會:232-234;Mollier,Christine. 1991. Une apocalypse taoiste du Ve siècle:Le Livre des Incantations Divines des Grottes Abyssales.Paris:Collège de France/Institut des Hautes études Chinoises:104,114.
[72] Shinohara Hisao篠原寿雄. 1977. “Dōkyōteki kishin:oni ni kansuru oboegaki 道教の鬼神―鬼に関する覚書―” In Yoshioka hakase kanreki kinen Dōkyōkenkyū ronshū吉岡博士還暦記念道教研究論集,pp.225-247.Tokyo 東京:Kokusho kankōkai 国書刊行會:235-236;Mollier,Christine. 1991. Une apocalypse taoiste du Ve siècle:Le Livre des Incantations Divines des Grottes Abyssales.Paris:Collège de France/Institut des Hautes études Chinoises:37-38,75.
[73] Stein,Rolf. 1979. “Religious Taoism and Popular Religion from the Second to the Seventh Centuries” In Welch,Holmes,and Anna Seidel,ed. 1979. Facets of Taoism:Essays in Chinese Religion. New Haven,Conn.:Yale University Press:59.
[74] 关于中国观音信仰早期发展的论述,参见Campany,Robert F. 1996a. “The Earliest Tales of the Bodhisattva Guanyin” In Lopez,Donald S.,Jr.,ed. 1996. Religions of China in Practice. Princeton,N.J.:Princeton University Press:82-96;Yü 2001。
[75] Thomas,Keith. 1971. Religion and the Decline of Magic. New York:Scribner’s:606-614;Ivanits,Linda J. 1989. Russian Folk Belief. Armonk,N.Y.:M.E.Sharpe:64-70.
[76] 雅努斯(Janus)是罗马门神,传说他长了两张脸。