有一个臭名昭著的法外之例:王莽(公元9年—23年在位)将数以万户的普通百姓贬成奴隶,因为他们铸造伪币。男子被塞进笼车,女子和儿童被套上铁钳,一路步行到都城。一经抵达,狱卒就将每家人分开,处以一种非常具有讽刺意味的惩罚,即在政府的铸币机构铸钱币。据说,有60%—70%的人因此而死。根据前文引述的贡禹的记载(约公元前44年),通常只有服徭役者和刑徒需要在铸币机构工作。这种对待奴隶(尤其妇女和儿童)的方式使汉代史家班固大为震惊,他在评论中对此非人道的做法感到义愤填膺。光武帝释放了官府铸币机构里有幸存活到公元31年的奴隶。
有一篇文章专门记载专家官员赵过,这篇文章有助于了解秦汉作坊制度中奴隶的一般角色。公元前87年左右,汉武帝任命赵过为搜粟都尉,其职责是为军队提高军粮产量。他发明了一套完善的耕作、播种和休耕方法,称为“代田法”。据说采用此法勤恳耕作的人都能大幅提高产量。这套方法用了一种全新设计的耦犁和自动播种设备。由于在铁专营制度之下只有朝廷才能铸造铁农具,因此大司农设立作坊,为朝廷大量生产赵过设计的新农业设备,也卖给老百姓。这些作坊由前文所述的铁官来运营。史官写道:“大农置工巧奴与从事,为作田器。”(大司农安置善于制作田器的奴仆来进行工作,制作种田的器械。)这里的关键词是“巧”,我在第二章中将这个词理解为“狡猾”“聪明”或“灵巧”。这些巧奴不是非技术工人,大司农派他们到铸铁作坊去不是让其像刑徒那样烧高炉或鼓风箱。他们实际上是要为赵过的新耕种方法“为作”(制作)新的耦犁。我认为,这些经验丰富的奴隶要设计农业生产中使用的复杂铸模。这些人由铁官派出,以技术顾问的身份向当地工匠展示如何组建新生产线。这是一个技术性岗位,地位较高。地位较低的奴隶在官方作坊的前厅后厨里比比皆是,他们为工匠和官员提供后勤服务,但我们可能从未听说过他们。位于亚雷提恩(Arretium)的罗马浮雕陶瓷作坊也采用类似的安排,即经验丰富的奴隶制作陶器的母模,而技术水平较低的自由工匠则负责批量生产成品。正如威廉•韦斯特曼(William Westermann)指出,只有奴隶才具备维持产品高质量所需的“工作的连续性”(continuity of employment)。
秦汉时期自由与非自由工匠劳动力的经济考量
秦汉时期,朝廷可调用几类自由与非自由劳动力来建造和制作器物。《汉书》中一段关于修建皇陵的文字列明,这些人即“卒”“徒”“工”“庸”(服徭役者、刑徒、官府工匠、雇用工人)。我在本章中提出,秦汉时期负责公共工程的高官要进行成本效益分析,据此安排不同劳动群体的人数、工作季节、工作时长和任务。综上所述,我们可以假设要在都城外兴建一座“X宫”,并重构这个经济考虑过程。
首先,建造地基、城墙和护城河需要大批非技术工人来搬运泥土,并将泥土倒入木桩里夯实。这项任务可从周边农村招募10万名非技术农民,花一个月时间完成。这可安排在春季第一个月,在播种之前,也可在仲夏,或在深秋收成之后。雇用这批劳动力的直接成本主要是膳食和临时住所,而间接成本则更大。在这一年内,这批男子(也可能包括一些女子)不能服其他徭役,例如运送税粮或维修当地的基础设施。如果要完成这些工作,则要以每人2000钱的价格雇用代工,为此最终可能需要支出2亿钱。这10多万人离开农田1个月,也会影响当地的农业生产(进而影响课税基础),或者影响他们的家庭稳定。
一旦这些农民服完徭役,就可派大量刑徒苦役全年无休地继续这项工作,直到工程竣工。派遣1万至2万刑徒就够了,因为需要时时刻刻看管他们,并维持秩序。刑徒的工作时间可能比农民更长,但需要搬运的土方则相差无几。他们还要在高空、地下或熔化的金属液旁边完成危险的任务。这批劳动力的直接成本主要是从各个地方监狱将他们运送过来,可忽略不计,但要在工地为他们提供维生的食物和当季衣物。每天就可能有1名到6名刑徒丧生,因此需要不断补充人力,直到完工。他们的间接成本没有那么显而易见,但支出时间更长。一旦有人被定罪,他的家人会成为官奴,那么这一整户从事生产的家庭就会从课税名单和农业基础中剔除。大臣贡禹意识到这弊大于利,但历任皇帝中很少有人认同他的观点。
筑好地基和城墙之后,高官将作大匠和都匠将派专业的木工、素工、湅工、石工、画工和其他工匠来营造宫殿,并进行豪华的装饰。这些人中有一部分是来自尚方和黄门等宫廷作坊的常任职员,大部分则是登记在册、技艺一般的男女工匠。他们的直接成本包括衣、食、住,可能还有金钱报酬。间接成本就是要豁免其家庭成员的徭役。朝廷要为每位工匠在家乡请2名至3名代工。因此,朝廷每年要为2000名工匠间接支出800万至1200万钱。都匠还要直接聘请少数技术精湛的工师。他们名震一方,待遇和报酬都非常优厚,可能会带自己的学徒和常用团队来工作。有一两位宫廷工师(如第五章介绍过的丁缓)也将参与工程,负责制作精美的鎏金宫灯或绘制先贤肖像壁画。他们是待诏工匠,应皇帝的需求来工作,所有薪酬由朝廷支出。这些人的物质成本可能比直接支付的薪酬还要高,因为其报酬更为隐形,如果他们工作出色,就会获得特别奖赏,名声大噪,这也使其日后有机会私下收取酬金。
最后一类为工程效力的人是官奴,他们也可能是最不重要的劳工。在协助工匠建造上一座宫殿时积累到经验的资深官奴会受到特别恩待,可以和工匠一起工作,因为这些经验非常宝贵,不能浪费在繁重的地基建造或危险的金属铸造上。许多官奴将为该工程提供后勤支持,男奴充当跑腿和文员,而女奴则担任厨师和用人。
把每一类工人的成本加起来,就能得出整个工程所需的人数和天数总成本。每一类劳工的标准工作量都有严格的明文规定:春季需要完成的工作量与冬季截然不同;1名女子能和1名男子做同样多的刺绣活;1名自由工匠应胜任4名刑徒工匠所能完成的技术性工作。法律文书表明,所有这些都是按理想情况来考虑的。如果工程超支,负责做预算的人将被处以巨额罚款。
秦汉,是一个官僚社会。它是由笔不停挥的吏员(functionaries)、而非独揽大权的君主或高扬道德的士人统治的。其数据库中,最大宗的信息是各种附有数字的名目:户籍档案、拥有土地的亩数与肥瘠、适宜服役的男丁数量、流浪者的数目,等等。在前电脑时代,这些错综复杂、规模海量的数据虽然令人头疼,但却是真正统治天下的关键。因此,真正标志着汉代在公元前207年继承秦代的事件,不是开国皇帝刘邦入关并接受秦王子婴的投降,也不是刘邦最终在垓下诛杀项羽,而是丞相萧何走入了秦朝存放档案的中央禁室,取得了秦帝国的律法、舆图和户籍档案。
结语
看完此书,我希望你用一个全新的角度重新审视博物馆里代表着秦汉物质文化的器物。希望你在欣赏一件器物的外形和美感格调之余,将目光放远到物质之外,想象创造它的人类文化。
当你在观看一件战国晚期或汉代的漆器,希望你品鉴过朱红色的美丽条纹和藤蔓纹之后,会想起大女子骜和咸阳漆器作坊中的女工,她们眼明手快地画着模版化的图案。或许,你随后会想到蜀郡西工里的夷母,她一步步晋升到誊写员(令史)的位置,达到了她的“职业天花板”。
当你邂逅一件汉代画像石的拓片,希望你对神祇和孝道故事的画像深深着迷之余,会想起雕凿安国祠堂的王叔,或制作中山王和任城王陵墓的服徭役者柏仲,又或是为北京附近的小文吏雕刻华丽墓地的石巨宜。想象他们挥汗如雨,汗水湿透了缠腰布,他们挥动铁锤和凿子,可能在每一下震耳欲聋的锤子敲击声中都感到自己像雷公的仆人。想象一下画师代盛的形象,他使用模印和粉本,飞快地画出看似原创的图案。
当你遇见一块铭有文字的汉代铜镜,希望你迅速跳出神秘几何图案(美术史学者称之为TLV纹,亦称规矩纹)的迷思,转而想象长安城繁华的集市,那里的工匠在官府的严厉管治下艰难谋生,街上的商人和客人比肩接踵,响亮的叫卖声此起彼伏。想象集市中有铜镜肆,镜贩子担保一面好镜能让你现世和来世事事顺遂。
当你看到一件画着精美斗兽图的鄂尔多斯风格铜牌,希望你在驻足欣赏构图的气势和张力之后,会想起在秦都咸阳工作的铸铜师苍,他竭力让自己的作品既吸引戴丝帽穿长袍、住在城市的古代中国客人,也适合戴毡帽穿毛皮、在长城之外策马奔腾的匈奴买家。
当你听闻一项秦汉时期的巧妙发明,知道它可能比西方早了几百年时,希望你想起伟大的数学家张衡,他热衷于实验观察,对地动仪和浑天仪等仪器精益求精,但这反而阻碍了他的仕途。或者你会想到传奇般的工匠丁缓,他以独特的方式运用物理和机械原理,制作出机械摇摆的风扇、跃动的雕像和自动保持平衡的香炉。
当你遇见一幅石碑拓片,它留存了高超的书法,希望你欣赏过笔墨粗细中透露的优雅灵动,并对书法家的性情有所体会之后,会想到石雕师陈兴,他受命将名士蔡邕及其同僚的毛笔书法毫不走样地深深刻入石头。
如果你有机会在博物馆看到汉代的铁器和农具,但愿你不会将它视为农民家里一件普通而笨拙的旧物。想想苏令和他成千上万名刑徒伙伴,他们在汉代地狱般的铸铁作坊里苦苦卖命,垂死挣扎,等待机会争取自由。
要想从一些难懂且偏颇的史料里提取信息,进而重构对一个职业阶层的认知,这绝非易事。这个阶层在他们的时代里遭人贬低,在后世被人遗忘。几十年前,在现代考古学的新发现出现之前,秦汉领域的研究资料少得可怜,学者对重构工匠的社会史一事不抱希望。诚然,我的研究成果仍有待丰富,但我希望本书至少能对新领域有所贡献,也为日后的研究开拓新路径。中国大地上仍有许多考古遗迹有待发现。我相信,更多关于秦汉工匠的资料将会陆续出土,有朝一日,学者将能更生动而丰富地阐述这群男女老少的生活故事。这些人真正缔造了中国。
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