50. Carrie Hirtz, “Contributions of GIS and Satellite-Based Remote Sensing to Landscape Archaeology in the Middle East,”Journal of Archaeological Research,vol.22,no.3 (2014): 229-76, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10814-013-9072-2.
51. Bjoern H. Menze and Jason A. Ur, “Mapping Patterns of Long-Term Settlement in Northern Mesopotamia at a Large Scale,”Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences,vol.109,no.14(2012):E778-87,https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1115472109.
52. Warwick Ball and Jean-Claude Gardin, Archaeological Gazetteer of Afghanistan, Synthèse, no. 8 (Paris: Éditions Recherche sur les civilisations, 1982).
53. David Thomas, personal communication, 8 November 2018.
54. David C. Thomas et al., “The Archaeological Sites of Afghanistan in Google Earth,”AARGnews,no.37(September 2008):22-30.
55. Andrew Lawler,“Spy Satellites Are Revealing Afghanistan's Lost Empires,”Science,13 December 2017, http://www.sciencemag.org/news/2017/12/spy-satellites-are-revealing-afghanistan-s-lost-empires, accessed 2 April 2017.
56. David Kennedy and Robert Bewley, “APAAME: Aerial Photographic Archive for Archaeology in the Middle East,” APAAME, http://www.apaame.org/, accessed 4 April 2018.
57. David Kennedy and Robert Bewley,“Aerial Archaeology in Jordan,”Antiquity,vol.83, no. 319 (2009): 69-81, https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003598X00098094.
58. “EAMENA: Endangered Archaeology in the Middle East and North Africa,” University of Oxford, 2015, www.eamena.org, accessed 31 March 2018.
59. “Mega-Jordan: The National Heritage Documentation and Management System,”MEGA-Jordan, Getty Conservation Institute and World Monuments Fund, 2010, http://www.megajordan.org, accessed 31 March 2018.
60. 我在网站上选取了所有的遗址类型，发现有超过68 000处遗址，但有一些跨类别或跨时期的遗址被重复列出。据文物部的直接资料，数据库中总收录遗址约为27 000处。史蒂芬·萨维奇，个人通信，2018年4月8日。
61. Rosa Lasaponara et al., “On the LiDAR Contribution for the Archaeological and Geomor-phological Study of a Deserted Medieval Village in Southern Italy,”Journal of Geophyics and Engineering,vol.7,no.2(2010):155,https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-2132/7/2/S01.
62. R. Coluzzi et al., “On the LiDAR Contribution for Landscape Archaeology and Palaeoenvironmental Studies: The Case Study of Bosco dell’Incoronata (Southern Italy),”Advances in Geosciences,vol.24(2010):125-32,https://doi.org/doi:10.5194/adgeo-24-125-2010.
63. Paolo Mozzi et al., “The Roman City of Altinum, Venice Lagoon, from Remote Sensing and Geophysical Prospection,”Archaeological Prospection, vol. 23, no. 1 (2016): 27-44, https://doi.org/10.1002/arp.1520.
64. “Learn the Knowledge of London,” Transport for London, https://tfl.gov.uk/info-for/taxis-and-private-hire/licensing/learn-the-knowledge-of-london, accessed 3 April 2018.
65. “ARCHI UK,” Archaeological Data Service, ARCHI UK, http://www.archiuk.com/, accessed 1 April 2018.
66. “Lasers Reveal ‘Lost’ Roman Roads,” GOV.UK, 3 February 2016, https://www.gov.uk/government/news/lasers-reveal-lost-roman-roads, accessed 2 April 2018.
67. Maev Kennedy, “‘Millennia of Human Activity’: Heatwave Reveals Lost UK Archaeological Sites,”Guardian, 14 August 2018, https://www.theguardian.com/science/2018/aug/15/millennia-of-human-activity-heatwave-reveals-lost-uk-archaeological-sites, accessed 8 November 2018.
68. Erwin Meylemans et al., “It's All in the Pixels: High-Resolution Remote-Sensing Data and the Mapping and Analysis of the Archaeological and Historical Landscape,”Internet Archaeology,vol.43(2017),https://doi.org/10.11141/ia.43.2.
69. Nick Allen,“1,000-Year-Old Fishing Trap Found on Google Earth,”Telegraph, 16 March 2009, https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/newstopics/howaboutthat/5000835/1000-year-old-fishing-trap-found-on-Google-Earth.html, accessed 7 April 2018.
70. Laura Rocchio, “Satellites and Shipwrecks: Landsat Satellite Spots Foundered Ships in Coastal Waters,” NASA, 11 March 2016, https://www.nasa.gov/feature/goddard/2016/landsat-spots-shipwrecks-in-coastal-waters, accessed 5 April 2018.
71.“Drones Seek Out Lost Shipwrecks Below Lake Huron.”DroneDeploy (blog), 20 September 2017, https://blog.dronedeploy.com/drones-seek-out-lost-shipwrecks-below-lake-huron-1420f8b407b4, accessed 5 April 2018.
72. “Trident Underwater Drone,” OpenROV, https://www.openrov.com/, accessed 4 April 2018.
73. Toshiko Kaneda and Carl Haub, “How Many People Have Ever Lived on Earth?”Population Reference Bureau, https://www.prb.org/howmanypeoplehaveeverlivedonearth/, accessed 7 April 2018.
74. Richard Gray, “How Can We Manage Earth's Land?” BBC Futurenow, 29 June 2017, http://www.bbc.com/future/story/20170628-how-to-best-manage-earths-land, accessed 7 April 2018.
7 帝国覆灭
1. David Jeffreys and Ana Tavares, “The Historic Landscape of Early Dynastic Memphis,”Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts Abteilung Kairo, vol. 50 (1994): 143-73.
2. I.E.S.Edwards,The Pyramids of Egypt,5th ed.(New York:Harmondsworth,1993).
3. Mark Lehner,The Complete Pyramids(London:Thames and Hudson,1997),115.
4. 有关古王国行政事务管理的全面概述，参见：Klaus Baer,Rank and Title in the Old Kingdom: The Structure of the Egyptian Administration in the Fifth and Sixth Dynasties (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1960)。
5. James P.Allen, The Ancient Egyptian Pyramid Texts (Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature Press, 2015).
6. Gregory Mumford,“Tell Ras Budran(Site 345):Defining Egypt's Eastern Frontier and Mining Operations in South Sinai During the Late Old Kingdom (Early EB IV/MB I),”Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research, no. 342 (May 2006): 13-67;Gregory Mumford, “Ongoing Investigations at a Late Old Kingdom Coastal Fort at Ras Budran in South Sinai,”Journal of Ancient Egyptian Interconnections,vol.4,no.4 (2012): 20-28, https://doi.org/10.2458/azu_jaei_v04i4_mumford.
7. 考古学家已经在阿巴西亚台形遗址（Tell Abassiya）、哈迪丁台形遗址（Tell Haddidin）、北伊斯维德台形遗址（Tell Iswid North）、南伊斯维德台形遗址（Tell Iswid South）、哈萨宁台形遗址（Tell Hasanin）、乌姆扎亚特台形遗址（Tell Umm el Zayat）、马萨拉台形遗址（Tell Mashala）、阿赫达尔台形遗址、迪尔迪尔台形遗址（Tell Dirdir）和格里尔台形遗址（Tell Gherir）发现了陶器碎片(Edwin C. M. van den Brink et al., “A Geo-Archaeological Survey in the East Delta, Egypt: The First Two Seasons, a Preliminary Report,”Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts Abteilung Kairo, vol. 43 [1987]: 4-31; Edwin C. M. van den Brink et al., “The Amsterdam University Survey Expedition to the East Nile Delta [1984-1986],”The Archaeology of the Nile Delta:Problems and Priorities,ed.Edwin van den Brink [Amsterdam: Netherlands Foundation for Archaeological Research in Egypt, 1988], 65-114); Tell Diba, Tell Farkha (Jean Leclant and Anne Minault-Gout, “Fouilles et travaux en Égypte et au Soudan, 1997-1998. Seconde partie,”Orientalia,vol.69[2000]:141-70);Abu Daoud(Marek Chlodnicki et al.,“The Nile Delta in Transition:A View from Tell el-Farkha,”The Nile Delta in Transition,4th-3rd Millennium B. C. Proceedings of the Seminar Held in Cairo, 21-24 October 1990, at the Netherlands Institute of Archaeology and Arabic Studies,ed.Edwin C.M.van den Brink [Tel Aviv: Edwin C. M. van den Brink, 1992], 171-90); and Geziret el-Faras (Van den Brink et al., “A Geo-Archaeological Survey in the East Delta, Egypt,” 20;Van den Brink et al., “The Amsterdam University Survey Expedition to the East Nile Delta [1984-1986]”)。考古学家在易卜拉欣·阿瓦德台形遗址发掘了古王国时代的一个聚落、一个墓区以及关于神庙堆积层的证据(Willem M. van Haarlem,“Temple Deposits at Tell Ibrahim Awad II——An Update,”Göttinger Miszellen,vol.154 [1996]: 31-34)。门德斯地区有一个占地面积超过15万平方英里的大型墓区，以及一个聚落和一个大型神庙建筑群(Donald B.Redford,Excavations at Mendes:Volume I.The Royal Necropolis[Leiden:Brill,2004];Donald B.Redford,City of the Ram-Man:The Story of Ancient Mendes[Princeton,NJ:Princeton University Press,2010])。在塔尔哈台形遗址、穆塞亚台形遗址和沙鲁法台形遗址，考古学家新发现了多处古王国时代的陶器遗址。由于滤水厂的兴建，特比拉台形遗址的古王国时代地层已经难以分辨，但出土的陶器及其碎片由此得到保护(Gregory Mumford, “The First Intermediate Period:Unravelling a‘Dark Age’at Mendes and Tell Tebilla,”Akhenaten Temple Project Newsletter,no.1[2000]:3-4)。法吉台形遗址（Tell Fagi）和艾恩台形遗址（Tell el-Ein）也出土了古王国时代的陶器碎片(Van den Brink et al., “A Geo-Archaeological Survey in the East Delta, Egypt,” 23)，此外还有马拉台形遗址（Tell Mara）(Van den Brink et al., “The Amsterdam University Survey Expedition to the East Nile Delta [1984-1986]”)。在卡菲尼戈姆墓区遗址（Kufr Nigm），各发掘单元内存在大量清晰可见的结构物(Mohammed I. Bakr, “The New Excavations at Ezbet et-Tell,Kufr Nigm:The First Season[1984],”in Van den Brink,The Archaeology of the Nile Delta:Problems and Priorities,49-62)。
8. Gregory Mumford,The Late Old Kingdom to First Intermediate Period Settlement at Tell er-Ru’ba(Mendes)(forthcoming).
9. 见2003年地表调查。
10. Van den Brink et al., “A Geo-Archaeological Survey in the East Delta, Egypt,” 20.
11. Willem van Haarlem,“Tell Ibrahim Awad,”Egyptian Archaeology, vol. 18 (2001): 33-35.
12. 有关古埃及物质的综合研究，参见：Paul T.Nicholson and Ian Shaw,eds.,Ancient Egyptian Materials and Technologies(Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,2009)。
13. Rushdi Said,Geological Evolution of the Nile Valley(New York:Springer,1988),1-7.
14. Rushdi Said, The River Nile: Geology, Hydrology and Utilization (Oxford and New York: Pergamon Press, 1993), 1-7.
15. Gregory Mumford, “New Investigations at Tell Tebilla in the Mendesian Nome,”Akhenaten Temple Project Newsletter,vol.2(2000):1-3.
16. 在尼罗河三角洲或尼罗河谷的任何一处聚落遗址钻取土层样本，只要钻得足够深，你就能钻到沙地。这是因为古埃及人聚居在被称为“格齐拉”（gezirah，意为“龟背地层”）的沙丘上。这种地层的形成与更新世晚期的冰川作用有关，但形成的具体年代尚不可考。在更新世晚期（公元前38000——前12000年），受亚极地冰川融化影响，地中海海平面上升超过100米，而海岸线与现代相比更是向内陆推进了50千米。从海岸线到今天的米特拉希纳（Mit Rahina，即孟斐斯），陆地海拔增加超过25米，而随着水位的上升，斜坡表层被不断侵蚀。日积月累之下，尼罗河的冲积物大量堆积，最终形成潟湖。随着时间的推移，上升后的海平面开始逐渐下降，由于三角洲地区受到侵蚀，龟背地层在更新世晚期开始形成，随之又出现了大量定居于此的聚落。卡尔·巴策在尼罗河三角洲取过深层土样，诸多取样地点分布在从亚历山大港到塞得港的不同区域。今天，距离地表约10米的地下，已经发现了旧石器晚期文化的证据。参见：Karl W. Butzer, “Geoarchaeological Implications of Recent Research in the Nile Delta,”Egypt and the Levant:Interrelations from the 4th Through Early 3rd Millennium BCE,ed.Edwin C.M.van den Brink and Thomas Evan Levy (London: Leicester University Press, 2002), 83-97。
17. Lehner,Complete Pyramids,115.
18. John Coleman Darnell, “The Message of King Wahankh Antef II to Khety, Ruler of Heracleopolis,”Zeitschrift für ägyptische Sprache und Altertumskunde,vol.124,no.2 (1997): 101-8.
19. Detlef Franke, “The Career of Khnumhotep III of Beni Hasan and the So-called‘Decline of the Nomarchs,’”Middle Kingdom Studies, ed. Stephen Quirke (New Malden, ∆255Surrey: SIA Publishing, 1991), 51- 67; Labib Habachi, Elephantine IV. The Sanctuary of Heqaib, Deutsches Archäeologisches Institut,Abteilung Cairo, Archäeologische Veröffentlichungen, 33 (Mainz: Phillip von Zabern, 1985); Percy Newberry, El Bersheh, Part I (The Tomb of Tehuti-hetep) (London: The Egypt Exploration Fund,1895,33;repr.Phillip von Zabern:Mainz,1985);P.Newberry, El-Berhseh I The Tomb of Djeutyhetep(London,1895).
20. Jaromir Malek,“The Old Kingdom (ca. 2686-2160 BC),”The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt,ed.Ian Shaw(Oxford:Oxford University Press,2000),89-117;Stephan Seidlmayer,“First Intermediate Period(ca.2160-2055 BC),”in Shaw,Oxford History of Ancient Egypt,118-47.
21. Malek, “The Old Kingdom (ca. 2686-2160 BC).”
22. Barbara Bell,“Climate and the History of Egypt:The Middle Kingdom,”American Journal of Archaeology,vol.79,no.3(1975):223-69,https://doi.org/10.2307/503481; Barbara Bell,“The Dark Ages in Ancient History.I.The First Dark Age in Egypt,”American Journal of Archaeology,vol.75,no.1(1971):1-26,https://doi.org/10.2307/503678; Barbara Bell,“The Oldest Record of the Nile Floods,”Geographical Journal,vol.136,no.4(1970):569-73;Harvey Weiss and Raymond S.Bradley,“What Drives Societal Collapse?”Science,vol.291, no. 5504 (2001): 609-10, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1058775; Fekri Hassan, “The Fall of the Egyptian Old Kingdom,” BBC, 2011, http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/egyptians/apocalypse_egypt_01.shtml, accessed 5 May 2018;Kent R.Weeks,The Illustrated Guide to Luxor(Cairo:American University in Cairo Press,2005),35.
23. Said,River Nile:Geology,Hydrology and Utilization,165.
24. Weiss and Bradley, “What Drives Societal Collapse?” 609-10.
25. Françoise Gasse, “Hydrological Changes in the African Tropics Since the Last Glacial Maximum,”Quaternary Science Reviews,vol.19,nos.1-5(2000):189-212, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0277-3791(99)00061-X.
26. Michael D. Krom et al., “Nile River Sediment Fluctuations over the Past 7000 Yrs and Their Key Role in Sapropel Development,”Geology, vol. 30, no. 1 (2002): 71-74, https:// doi.org/10.1130/0091-7613(2002)030 ＜0071:NRSFOT＞2.0.CO;2.
27. Said,River Nile:Geology,Hydrology and Utilization,chapter 5.
28. Joe Morrissey and Mary Lou Guerinot, “Iron Uptake and Transport in Plants: The Good, the Bad,and the Ionome,”Chemical Reviews,vol.109,no.10(2009):4553-67,https://doi.org/10.1021/cr900112r.
29. Jean-Daniel Stanley et al., “Short Contribution: Nile Flow Failure at the End of the Old Kingdom,Egypt:Strontium Isotopic and Petrologic Evidence,”Geoarchaeology, vol. 18, no. 3, (2003): 395-402, https://doi.org/10.1002/gea.10065.
30. Thomas von der Way, Tell el-Fara’in/Buto I,Archäologische Veröffentlichungen (Deutsches Archäologisches Institut. Abteilung Kairo), 83 (Mainz: Philip Von Zabern, 1997); Thomas von der Way, “Excavations at Tell el-Fara’in/Buto in 1987-1989,”in Van den Brink,Nile Delta in Transition,1-10.
31. 有关布陀年表的详细概述，参见：von der Way,Tell el-Fara’in/Buto I。
32. Lisa Giddy and David Jeffreys,“Memphis 1991,”Journal of Egyptian Archaeology, vol. 78 (1992): 1-11, https://doi.org/10.2307/3822063.
33. Nicole Alexanian and Stephan Johannes Seidelmeyer, “Die Residenznekropole von Daschur Erster Grabungsbericht,”Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts,Abteilung Kairo,vol.58(2002):1-29.
34. William Ellis,“Africa's Sahel:The Stricken Land,”National Geographic Magazine, August 1987, 140-79.
35. Harvey Weiss,“Beyond the Younger Dryas,”Environmental Disaster and the Archaeology of Human Response, ed. Garth Bawden and Richard Martin Reycraft, Maxwell Museum of Anthropology, Anthropological Papers no. 7 (Albuquerque:University of New Mexico, 2000), 75-98. 在对以色列犹太山区的索雷克洞穴（Soreq Cave）的沉积物进行研究时发现，在4 200年前到4 000年前，降雨量减少了 20%～30% (See Miryam Bar-Matthews et al., “Late Quaternary Paleoclimate in the Eastern Mediterranean Region from Stable Isotope Analysis of Speleothems at Soreq Cave, Israel,”Quaternary Research, vol. 47, no. 2 [1997]: 155-68, https://doi.org/10.1006/qres.1997.1883)。在巴勒斯坦，考古学家发现了早期青铜时代IV（公元前2250——前2000年）遭废弃的遗址。在叙利亚的利兰台形遗址（Tell Leilan），考古学家发现了1米厚的贫瘠淤泥层，对应时代为后古王国时代，该淤泥层的特征与在特比拉台形遗址钻取的土层样本颇为相似(See H. Weiss et al., “The Genesis and Collapse of Third Millennium North Mesopotamian Civilization,”Science, vol. 261, no. 5124 [1993]: 995-1004, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.261.5124.995;Larry A. Pavlish,“Archaeometry at Mendes: 1990-2002,”Egypt, Israel and the Ancient Mediterranean World: Studies in Honor of Donald B. Redford, ed. Gary N. Knoppers and Antoine Hirsch, Problem der Ägyptologie series, vol. 20 [Leiden:Brill, 2004], 61-112)。相关证据表明，位于今叙利亚和伊拉克的阿卡德帝国的覆亡时间约为公元前2170年，即距今4 170年左右，前后误差为150年。在土耳其，里海和黑海之间有一个名为凡湖的湖泊，考古学家在此收集了过去20 000年来淤泥和黏土沉积层的年度资料。这些被称为“年融积层”（varves）的沉积层，通常可以揭示与静态水体相关的沉积循环信息。凡湖的“年融积层”显示，公元前2290——前2000年，空中悬浮尘土增加了5倍。另外，数据也显示湖泊水位下降，橡树花粉减少，而风成石英颗粒沉积物却有所增加。这是干旱时期出现的典型现象(See Gerry Lemcke and Michael Sturm,“δ18o and Trace Element Measurements as Proxy for the Reconstruction of Climate Changes at Lake Van [Turkey]: Preliminary Results,”Third Millennium B.C.Climate Change and Old World Collapse,NATO ASI Series I, Global Environmental Change, vol. 49, ed. H. Nüzhet Dalfes et al. [Berlin:Springer, 1997], 653-78)。往东看，印度的一项研究对印度河三角洲的沉积物进行了取土层样本分析，发现浮游生物的氧同位素比值在大约4 200年前发生了重大变化，表明季风雨雨量减少(See M. Staubwasser et al., “Climate Change at the 4.2 ka BP Termination of the Indus Valley Civilization and Holocene South Asian Monsoon Variability,”Geophysical Research Letters, vol. 30, no. 8 [2003]: 1425, https://doi.org/10.1029/2002GL016822)。
