战争部长卡斯，他从第一年驱逐原住民家庭的经验中，得到了较实用的教训，认为必须想出「更系统化的行动计划」。为此，他颁布一套冗长的〈印地安人迁移规范〉（Regulations Concerning the Removal of the Indians）。根据新规定，除了因为太过年幼或病得太重而无法进行徒步跋涉的那些人，其他人都不能坐在马车或马背上行进；每个人的行李不得超过三十磅；不可运送木制家具或笨重的工具；每五十人才能配一辆马车（但一辆马车要如何运载一千五百磅的行李，以及二十位左右的老幼伤病者，规定中没有说明）。最后，为了避免日后产生更多支出，卡斯凭着政府官员典型的推诿本领，规定美国不会为任何意外负责。48
新措施也包含添购粮食的方针。战争部早在一八一二年的战争中，辛辛苦苦学得了经验，他们发现，由承包商负责运送、分发粮食的私人承包方式，不仅没效率，甚至可能赔上性命。由于利润来自承包价格和货物成本之间的差异，一位将军便指出，承包商「总是给部队最粗劣、最廉价的粮食」。他声称，军队因为拙劣的粮食而失去的人命，比敌人的枪炮夺走的人命还多。虽然如此，私人承包这个方法，比让总代理自己在粮食稀少的地区，透过利伯维尔场购买食物还省钱，因此战争部长仍强烈鼓励官员使用承包的方式采购。结果可想而知。撰写〈新颚骨〉的乔克托人唱道：「盐腌猪肉与劣质牛肉／连恶魔都不会想要偷」。49
战争部长吩咐总代理准备好「必要的表格」，确保新规定「一致地」实施，并且也指示下属要「严格遵循」这些表格。账目和收据每季结束时要立即发送；支出摘要每月都要上交；每笔购买都要有一式两份的收据；来自现场官员的信函，全都要使用一模一样的抬头：「华盛顿市，军饷总代理，印地安人迁移」。50
简言之，战争部长的新规定，完全聚焦在节俭和一致性上，重申了杰克森任用的总代理，他打从一开始就强调的两大重点。吉布森大赞，这个紧绷的体制「改善了每个方面」，将会在「财务方面」，带来「没有一个政府部门超越得了的究责体系与效率」。虽然总代理办公室一再吩咐（大概只是做做样子），现场官员要和善地对待难民，但难民在第一年的驱离活动中遭受的庞大苦难，却仍没有被提及。部分现场官员偶尔会对失土者的处境表示同情，但很少人真的对自己的工作表达严正的质疑。一名官员哀叹：「我们那些可怜的移民呦。」语气夹杂着担忧与傲慢。51随着规模庞大、令人局促不安的行动迈入第二个年头，政府官僚仍继续执行他们的任务，彷佛他们在一个机械化、可预测的世界做事，没有突如其来的冬季暴风雪和无法预料的传染病，更没有那些固执得叫人气恼、坚决不顺从战争部期许的人们。
1 “A poem composed by a Choctaw of P.P. Pitchlynn’s party while emigrating last winter to the West,” [1832], 4026.8176, PPP.
2 Robert Mills, Guide to the National Executive Offices and the Capitol of the United States (Washington, D.C., 1841), 20; A Full Directory for Washington City, Georgetown, and Alexandria (Washington, D.C., 1834); Harriet Martineau, Retrospect of Western Travel (London, 1838), 1:266(“Its seven”).
3 Stephanie L. Gamble, “Capital Negotiations: Native Diplomats in the American Capital” (Ph.D. diss., Johns Hopkins University, 2014), 1- 2, 104- 7; “Letters from Washington,” New-York Observer (New York, N.Y.), Feb. 12, 1831, 4 (“public tables”).
4 Lewis Cass, Regulations Concerning the Removal of the Indians, May 15, 1832, CSE, 1:343- 49 (“systematic”); George Gibson to Lewis Cass, Nov. 12, 1835, CGLS, vol. 3, pp. 338- 50, NA (“complete accountability”); Return J. Meigs, extract from journal, Aug. 9, 1834, “Documents Relating to Frauds, &c., in the sale of Indian Reservations of Land,” 24th Cong., 1st sess., S. Doc. 425, serial 445, p. 169 (“made all nature”); George Gibson to Lewis Cass, Jan. 30, 1835, CGLS, vol. 2, pp. 427- 28, NA (“of a multifarious”).
5 Thomas L. McKenney to John H. Eaton, Mar. 18, 1829, LS, OIA, Miscellaneous Immigration, RG 75, entry 84, M21, book E, 353, NA (“unremitting”); John Bell to Lewis Cass, July 17, 1835, LR, OIA, reel 136, M- 234, NA (“in the best” and “A bungler”); John Kennedy and Thomas W. Wilson to C.A. Harris, Dec. 6, 1837, LR, OIA, reel 114, M- 234, NA (“competent”); John C. Mullay to C.A. Harris, Apr. 19,1837, LR, OIA, reel 82, M- 234, NA (“great number” and “to an immense”); John C. Mullay to C.A. Harris, Nov. 6, 1837, LR, OIA, reel 114, M- 234, NA; Extract of a letter from M. Stokes, Apr. 3, 1838, LR, OIA, reel 82, frame 683, M- 234, NA.
6 Michael Zakim, “Paperwork,” Raritan 33, no. 4 (Spring 2014): 52- 53; Shelf list of Records Relating to Indian Removal, Records of the Commissary General of Subsistence, NA; George Gibson to J. Van Horne, Oct. 31, 1836, CGLS, vol. 4, p. 217, NA (“Finis”).
7 关于一八三○年代的文件纪录实际长度，我是粗估的，因为它们并没有按照年代顺序归档。Records of the Accounting Officers of the Department of the Treasury, Settled Indian Accounts, RG 217, entry 525, NA. 关于印地安事务局官僚制度的早期历史，可参见：Stephen J. Rockwell, Indian Affairs and the Administrative State in the Nineteenth Century (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010).
8 J.H. Hook to William Armstrong, Oct. 1, 1832, CSE, 1:171 (“Where medical”); George Gibson to John Page, July 15, 1834, CGLS, vol. 2, pp. 229- 38, NA (“when actually required” and “must be”); J.T. Sprague, Dec. 3, 1836, Records of the Accounting Officers of the Department of the Treasury, Settled Indian Accounts, RG 217, entry 525, box 257, account 547, NA.
9 Papers Relating to Claims for Commutation Pay by Heirs of George Gibson, box 1, Gibson-Getty- McClure Papers, LC; Kurt Windisch, “A Thousand Slain: St. Clair’s Defeat and the Evolution of the Constitutional Republic” (Ph.D. diss., University of Georgia, 2018), 16; Biography of George Gibson, 1818- 1854 and undated, box 1, Gibson-Getty-McClure Papers, LC; Thomas P. Roberts, Memoirs of John Bannister Gibson (Pittsburgh, 1890), 228; Erna Risch, Quartermaster Support of the Army: A History of the Corps, 1775- 1939 (1962; reprint, Washington, D.C.: Center of Military History, U.S. Army, 1989), 178- 79; George Gibson to Jacob Brown, Jan. 16, 1835, CGLS, vol. 2, p. 417, NA “(It will not do”); Ethan Davis, “An Administrative Trail of Tears: Indian Removal,” American Journal of Legal History 50, no. 1 (Jan. 1, 2008): 49- 100.
10 George Gibson to J.P. Simonton, July 11, 1832, CSE, 1:117 (“of the size”); George Gibson to Jacob Brown, Jan. 14, 1835, CGLS, vol. 2, pp. 413- 15, NA (“numbers”); George Gibson to William Clark, Oct. 13, 1834, CGLS, vol. 2, pp. 334- 7, NA (“muster roll”); George Gibson to William Clark, May 6, 1834, CGLS, vol. 2, pp. 190- 92, NA (“with a view”); George Gibson to John Page, July 15, 1834, CGLS, vol. 2, pp. 229- 38, NA (“detachment”); George Gibson to William Armstrong, July 19, 1834, CGLS, vol. 2, pp. 257- 61, NA; J.H. Hook to William Armstrong, Oct. 1, 1832, CSE, 1:171 (“It is not warranted”); Lewis Cass, Regulations Concerning the Removal of the Indians, May 15, 1832, CSE, 1:344; J.B. Clark to George Gibson, May 5, 1831, reel 2, IRW (“It placed me”).
11 Mark Walson, Birthplace of Bureaus: The United States Treasury Department (Washington, D.C.: Treasury Historical Society, 2013), 14- 16; John T. Sprague, The Origin, Progress, and Conclusion of the Florida War (New York, 1848), 103 (“rigid economy”).
12 George Gibson to W.S. Colquhuon, Sept. 21, 1831, CSE, 1:44; George Gibson to J.P. Taylor, July 13, 1831, CSE, 1:24; George Gibson to S.V.R. Ryan, Nov. 9, 1831, CSE, 1:50; George Gibson to George S. Gaines, Mar. 31, 1832, CSE, 1:75- 77; George Gibson to Jacob Brown, Aug. 12, 1833, CSE, 1:287 (“The word inclusive”); George Gibson to John Page, July 15, 1834, CGLS, vol. 2, pp. 229- 38, NA (“from” and “to”); J. Brown to George Gibson, May 30, 1832, CSE, 3:450- 51 (“waste and extravagance”); George Gibson to Jacob Brown, July 11, 1834, CGLS, vol. 2, pp. 222- 24, NA (“It gives me”).
13 George Gibson to J.R. Stephenson, Dec. 27, 1830, CSE, 1:5- 6 (“Too much”); George Gibson to Jacob Brown, Apr. 12, 1832, CSE, 1:77- 78 (“strictly economical” and “and lop it off”); George Gibson to John Page, July 15, 1834, CGLS, vol. 2, pp. 229- 38, NA (“I would impress”); J.H. Hook to A.C. Pepper, Aug. 12, 1834, CGLS, vol. 2, pp. 282- 84, NA (“You are urged”); George Gibson to Wiley Thompson, Feb. 28, 1835, CGLS, vol. 2, pp. 477- 83, NA (“Let nothing”); George Gibson to J.P. Simonton, May 5, 1835, CGLS, vol. 3, pp. 96- 97, NA (“Wherever money”).
14 William Armstrong to George Gibson, Oct. 13, 1832, CSE, 1:386- 87 (“every exertion”); John Page to George Gibson, Jan. 6, 1835, CGLR, box 8, Creek, 1834, NA (“incur”); John Page to George Gibson, Apr. 25, 1835, CGLR, box 8, Creek, 1834, NA (“enormous”); John Page to George Gibson, May 1, 1835, CGLR, box 8, Creek, NA (“I never did”); A.M.M. Upshaw to C.A. Harris, Aug. 1, 1838, LR, OIA, reel 143, frame 689, M- 234, NA (“We are moved”).
15 阿普肖虽然偶尔对契卡索人表示同情，却也骗过他们的经费。Amanda L. Paige, Fuller L. Bumpers, and Daniel F. Littlefield, Jr., Chickasaw Removal (Ada, Okla.: Chickasaw Press, 2010), 253; Gibson to Templin W. Ross, Oct. 1, 1834, CGLS, vol. 2, pp. 314- 18, NA (“with every regard”); George Gibson to Joseph Kerr, July 21, 1832, CSE, 1:126 (“consistent”); George Gibson to Lewis Cass, Nov. 12, 1835, CGLS, vol. 3, pp. 338- 50, NA (“With respect”); Davis, “An Administrative Trail of Tears,” 92。
16 Davis, “An Administrative Trail of Tears,” 99; George Gibson to William Clark, Oct. 13, 1834, CGLS, vol. 2, pp. 334- 37, NA.
17 Thomas L. McKenney to James Barbour, Jan. 4, 1828, LS, OIA, Miscellaneous Immigration, RG 75, entry 84, M21, book D, 229, NA; J.T. Sprague, Oct. 23, 1836, Records of the Accounting Officers of the Department of the Treasury, Settled Indian Accounts, RG 217, entry 525, box 257, account 547, NA.
18 Ronald N. Satz, American Indian Policy in the Jacksonian Era (1974; reprint, Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1975), 73; “On Claims to Reservations under the Fourteenth Article of the Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek, with the Choctaw Indians,” 24th Cong., 1st sess., H.Doc. 1523, American State Papers: Public Lands (Washington, D.C., 1861), 8:691- 93 (“negro servant”); Records Relating to Indian Removal, Records of the Commissary General of Subsistence, Choctaw Removal Records, Journal of Pray, Murray, and Vroom, RG 75, entry 268, box 1, p. 167 (“soured”) and p. 168 (“confused and impaired”), NA; James Murray and Peter D. Broom to the President of the United States, Records Relating to Indian Removal, Records of the Commissary General of Subsistence, Choctaw Removal Records, Pray, Murray, and Vroom, Evidence, 1837- 38, RG 75, entry 270, box 3, NA (“arbitrary”).
19 Mary E. Young, “Indian Removal and Land Allotment: The Civilized Tribes and Jacksonian Justice,” American Historical Review 64, no. 1 (Oct. 1958): 38.
20 根据一份文献的估计，迟至一八三八年，仍有五千名乔克托人留在密西西比州，距离驱离法案通过已经整整七年，显示整个民族约有三分之一到一半的人口意图留在该地区，变成该州的公民。这个数字跟乔克托族在一八五○年代所给的数据相符。James Murray and Peter D. Broom to the President of the United States, Records Relating to Indian Removal, Records of the Commissary General of Subsistence, Choctaw Removal Records, Pray, Murray, and Vroom, Evidence, 1837- 38, RG 75, entry 270, box 3, NA; “Claims of the Choctaw Nation,” 44th Cong., 1st sess., H.Misc.Doc. 40, p. 23, Records Relating to Indian Removal, Records of the Commissary General of Subsistence, Choctaw Removal Records, Journal of Pray, Murray, and Vroom, RG 75, entry 268, box 1, NA (“to suffer”); William Ward to Samuel Hamilton, June 21, 1831,4026.3194, PPP; “On Claims to Reservations under the Fourteenth Article of the Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek, with the Choctaw Indians,” 24th Cong., 1st sess., H.Doc. 1523, American State Papers: Public Lands, 8:691 (“emigrating agents”); Deposition of Adam Jones, Jan. 31, 1838, Records Relating to Indian Removal, Records of the Commissary General of Subsistence, Choctaw Removal Records, Journal of Pray, Murray, and Vroom, RG 75, entry 268, box 1, NA (“there were too many”); Deposition of Captain Bob, alias Mingohomah, July 12, 1844, Records Relating to Indian Removal, Records of the Commissary General of Subsistence, Choctaw Removal Records, Pray, Murray, and Vroom, Evidence, 1837- 38, RG 75, entry 270, box 3, NA.
21 Records Relating to Indian Removal, Records of the Commissary General of Subsistence, Choctaw Removal Records, Journal of Pray, Murray, and Vroom, RG 75, entry 268, box 1, NA; Mahlon Dickerson to George W. Martin, Sept. 5, 1833, U.S. Congress, Senate, Report from the Secretary of the Treasury, 24th Cong., 1st sess., S.Doc. 69, pp. 13- 14; J.H. Eaton to Lewis Cass, Sept. 20, 1833, CSE, 4:565 (“so torn”).
22 [·] to Peter Pitchlynn, Aug. 8, 1834, 4026.3351, PPP.
23 Patrick B. McGuigan, “Bulwark of the American Frontier: A History of Fort Towson,” in Early Military Forts and Posts in Oklahoma, ed. Odie B. Faulk, Kenny A. Franks, and Paul F. Lambert (Oklahoma City: Oklahoma Historical Society, 1978), 9- 25; Robert Gudmestad, “Steamboats and the Removal of the Red River Raft,” Louisiana History 52, no. 4 (Fall 2011): 389- 416; Benjamin Reynolds and George S. Gaines to John H. Eaton, Feb. 7, 1831, CSE, 1:674- 75.
24 J.H. Hook to P.G. Randolph, July 2, 1831, CSE, 1:21- 22; George Gibson to J.R. Stephenson, Aug. 27, 1831, CSE, 1:36- 37; George Gibson to John B. Clark, Apr. 5, 1831, CSE, 1:8- 9 (“proper intervals”); J.H. Hook to Greenwood LeFlore, June 23, 1831, CSE, 1:15- 17; J.H. Hook to Wm. S. Colquhoun, July 5, 1831, CSE, 1:27- 28; George Gibson to T.S. Jesup, Sept. 21, 1831, CSE, 1: 43; George Gibson to Jacob Brown, Nov. 4, 1831, CSE, 1:49- 50; J.B. Clark to George Gibson, Oct. 19, 1831, CSE, 1:586; J.B. Clark to George Gibson, July 30, 1831, CSE, 1:561- 62 (“No one”).
25 I am excluding for the moment those who tried to stay in Mississippi. Approximately 2,400 Choctaw families were expelled, and, assuming 6 people per family on average, only 100 families were compensated under Article 19 of the Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek. Liabilities of Choctaw Indians to Individuals, 43rd Cong., 2nd sess., H.Exec.Doc. 47, pp. 12- 13; John Coffee to Andrew Jackson, Sept. 23, 1831, CSE, 2:600 (“almost nothing”).
26 George Wilson Pierson, Tocqueville in America (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1938), 595- 98.
27 Walter Johnson, River of Dark Dreams: Slavery and Empire in the Cotton Kingdom (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2013), 73- 96; Michael Chevalier, Society, Manners, and Politics in the United States (Boston, 1839), 223- 24 (“So much”); Robert H. Gudmestad, Steamboats and the Rise of the Cotton Kingdom (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2011), 80- 82.
28 汽轮爆炸并不少见：Gudmestad, Steamboats and the Rise of the Cotton Kingdom, 105- 11. William S. Colquhoun to George Gibson, Dec. 10, 1831, CSE, 1:593 (“disgusting sight”); James B. Gardiner to George Gibson, June 20, 1832, CSE, 1:690 (“their native modesty”); [·] to Lewis Cass, May 2, 1832, 4026.3220, PPP (“well agree”); James B. Gardiner to George Gibson, June 2, 1832, CSE, 1:687- 88 (“scalded”).
29 William S. Colquhoun to George Gibson, Dec. 10, 1831, CSE, 1:427; J. Brown to George Gibson, Dec. 15, 1831, CSE, 1:593; Thomas Nuttall, Journal of Travels into the Arkansas Territory During the Year 1819 (Philadelphia, 1821), 75- 78.
30 J. Brown to George Gibson, Dec. 22, 1831, CSE, 1:428; J. Brown to George Gibson, Dec. 29, 1831, CSE, 1:431- 32 (“horrid”); J. Brown to George Gibson, Jan. 4, 1832, CSE, 1:432; J. Brown to George Gibson, May 4, 1832, CSE, 1:447- 48 (“indifferently made”).
31 “A poem composed by a Choctaw of P.P. Pitchlynn’s party while emigrating last winter to the West,” [1832], 4026.8176, PPP.
32 F.W. Armstrong to Lewis Cass, Feb. 8, 1832, CSE, 3:191- 92; Grant Foreman, Indian Removal: The Emigration of the Five Civilized Tribes of Indians (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1932), 58.
33 Foreman, Indian Removal, 58- 59, 59n16.
34 二十五美元的人均支出不包含驱逐后要支付的一年补给费用。RDC (1830), vol. 6, 2:1076 (“five times five millions”); “Estimate of the expense of removing seven thousand Chaktaw from their old to their new homes by waggons,” reel 2, frame 456, IRW; George Gibson to Lewis Cass, Apr. 18, 1836, CGLS, vol. 3, p. 511, NA.
35 Records Relating to Indian Removal, Records of the Commissary General of Subsistence, Estimates, 1832- 36, RG 75, entry 205, NA; Elbert Herring to Col. William Ward, Mar. 19, 1832, CSE, 2:800 (“What amount”); William S. Colquhoun to George Gibson, Apr. 15, 1832, CSE, 1:604 (“quite insufficient”).
36 Greenwood LeFlore to the Secretary of War, June 7, 1831, reel 2, William S. Colquhoun to George Gibson, Jan. 3, 1832, reel 2, and F.W. Armstrong to Elbert Herring, Mar. 8, 1833, reel 3, IRW; Peter Pitchlynn[·] to David Folsom, May 19, 1830, 4026.3186, PPP (“in a precipitate manner”); “A poem composed by a Choctaw of P.P. Pitchlynn’s party while emigrating last winter to the West,” [1832], 4026.8176, PPP (“tyrant”); Mushulatubbe at al. to John Henry Eaton, June 2, 1830, PAJ; Greenwood LeFlore to Lewis Cass, Mar. 6, 1834, LR, OIA, reel 170, M- 234, NA (“compensate”); Records Relating to Indian Removal, Records of the Commissary General of Subsistence, Choctaw Removal Records, Journal of Pray, Murray, and Vroom, RG 75, entry 268, box 1, pp. 212- 13, NA (“We dreaded”); R. Halliburton, Jr., “Chief Greenwood LeFlore and His Malmaison Plantation,” in After Removal: The Choctaw in Mississippi, ed. Samuel J. Wells and Rosseana Tubby (Jackson: University of Mississippi Press, 1986), 56- 63.
