如果把军队六月时使用汽轮完成的驱逐行动，和契罗基人秋天时自行完成的徒步旅程全算在内，约有一千人直接死于这为期数个月的活动，将近整个族群人口的百分之七。倘若用另一种计算方式，将拘留营的死亡人数以及流产、不孕和其他导致出生率下降的因素包含在内，死亡人数会是这个数字的三倍，相当于三千五百人。这些数字无法看出被驱离者所受的苦。随便举三个骇人听闻，但跟数百起类似的事件相差无几的死亡案例来说，就包括一个死于痢疾的婴儿、一个被翻倒的拖车压死的女子，还有一个因为冻到骨子里、在太靠近营火的位置睡着而被火烧死的老人。44
约翰．罗斯的一个朋友乔治．西克斯（Georgo Hicks），他负责带领最后一批契罗基人离开家园。他写道：「我们很伤心自己被白人当局强迫离开童年时期的景色。」此外，他还描述了当一千零三十一个难民、六十辆马车、六百匹马、四十对牛只，这样的大队人马从契罗基族启程时，美国公民竟在光天化日之下抢劫他们。这趟依循北方路线的漫长冬季旅程，耗费超过四个月，共有七十九人死在路途中。幸存者终于抵达西部时，接应他们的联邦官员却给他们不适合人吃的玉米和牛肉做为补给。乔治．西克斯讽刺地说，根据「我们在东部国土得到的承诺，我们没想到会得到这样的待遇。」45
1 J.R. Mathews et al. to Lewis Cass, June 24, 1836, LR, OIA, reel 80, M- 234, NA; George M. Lavender to John Ridge, May 3, 1836, LR, OIA, reel 80, M- 234, NA; Josiah Shaw to Lewis Cass, June 28, 1836, LR, OIA, reel 80, M- 234, NA; Spencer Jarnigan to C.A. Harris, Aug. 26, 1836, LR, OIA, reel 80, M- 234, NA; Major Ridge and John Ridge to Andrew Jackson, June 30, 1836, LR, OIA, reel 80, M- 234, NA.
2 Memorial of the Cherokee Nation, May 17, 1833, PM, COIA, SEN23A- G6, NA; John Ross et al. to the Senate and House of Representatives, June 21, 1836, PCJR, 1:437.
3 Tuelookee, Oct. 24, 1836, p. 84, John Cahoossee’s widow, Oct. 19, 1836, p. 66, Canowsawsky, Oct. 24, 1836, p. 83, Tatterhair, Oct. 24, 1836, p. 85, Whiteman Killer, Oct. 24, 1836, p. 88, Records Relating to Indian Removal, Records of the Commissary General of Subsistence, Cherokee Removal Records, First Board, Property Valuations, 1835- 39, RG 75, entry 224, box 3, Hutchins, Shaw, and Kellog, NA.
4 Nos. 8, 9, 10, and 11, Records Relating to Indian Removal, Records of the Commissary General of Subsistence, Cherokee Removal Records, First Board, Property Valuations, 1835- 39, RG 75, entry 224, box 1, NA.
5 Yohnuguskee or Drowning Bear, Oct. 21, 1836, Records Relating to Indian Removal, Records of the Commissary General of Subsistence, Cherokee Removal Records, First Board, Property Valuations, 1835- 39, RG 75, entry 224, box 3, Hutchins, Shaw, and Kellog, p. 74, NA.
6 James Mooney, Myths of the Cherokee (1900; reprint, New York: Dover, 1995), 523; Yohnuguskee or Drowning Bear, Oct. 21, 1836, p. 74, John Walker and Salagatahee, Oct. 21, 1836, p. 73, Two Dollar, Oct. 22, 1836, p. 75, Sutt,Oct. 22, 1836, p. 76, Records Relating to Indian Removal, Records of the Commissary General of Subsistence, Cherokee Removal Records, First Board, Property Valuations, 1835- 39, RG 75, entry 224, box 3, Hutchins, Shaw, and Kellog, NA.
7 Book E, Records Relating to Indian Removal, Records of the Commissary General of Subsistence, Cherokee Removal Records, First Board, General Abstract of Valuations and Spoliations, RG 75, entry 238, box 1, NA.
8 Wilson Lumpkin to B.F. Butler, Oct. 26, 1836, Records Relating to Indian Removal, Records of the Commissary General of Subsistence, Cherokee Removal Records, First Board, LS, 1836- 39, RG 75, entry 223, box 1, pp. 32- 34, NA (“but a sense”); Wilson Lumpkin to Martin Van Buren, June 19, 1837, LR, OIA, reel 82, M- 234, NA (“with great labour” and “business”); Wilson Lumpkin and John Kennedy to Lieutenant Van Horne, May 31, 1837, LR, OIA, reel 114, M- 234, NA (“embarrassment and error”); John C. Mullay to C.A. Harris, Apr. 19, 1837, LR, OIA, reel 82, M- 234, NA; Wilson Lumpkin and John Kennedy to Messrs. Welch and Jarrett, Nov. 22,
9 Wilson Lumpkin to J.E. Wool, Sept. 24, 1836, Records Relating to Indian Removal, Records of the Commissary General of Subsistence, Cherokee Removal Records, First Board, LS, 1836- 39, RG 75, entry 223, box 1, pp. 18- 19, NA (“will be executed”); Wilson Lumpkin to C.A. Harris, Oct. 26, 1836, Records Relating to Indian Removal, Records of the Commissary General of Subsistence, Cherokee Removal Records, First Board, LS, 1836- 39, RG 75, entry 223, box 1, pp. 28- 31, NA; Wilson Lumpkin and John Kennedy to John E. Wool, Jan. 23, 1837, Records Relating to Indian Removal, Records of the Commissary General of Subsistence, Cherokee Removal Records, First Board, LS, 1836- 39, RG 75, entry 223, box 1, pp. 70- 72, NA (“We would invite”); Wilson Lumpkin and John Kennedy to C.A. Harris, June 5, 1837, Records Relating to Indian Removal, Records of the Commissary General of Subsistence, Cherokee Removal Records, First Board, LS, 1836- 39, RG 75, entry 223, box 1, pp. 23- 26, NA (“to carry off”); Wilson Lumpkin and John Kennedy to Nathaniel Smith, Oct. 24, 1837, Records Relating to Indian Removal, Records of the Commissary General of Subsistence, Cherokee Removal Records, First Board, LS, 1836- 39, RG 75, entry 223, box 1, pp. 77- 78, NA (“the imperative command”).
10 Fred S. Rolater, “The American Indian and the Origin of the Second American Party System,” Wisconsin Magazine of History 76, no. 3 (Spring 1993): 180- 203; Michael Paul Rogin, Fathers and Children: Andrew Jackson and the Subjugation of the American Indian (New York: Knopf, 1975), 56- 57.
11 John Ross to Richard Taylor et al., Apr. 28, 1832, PCJR, 1:242- 43; John Ridge to Stand Watie, Apr. 6, 1832, Cherokee Cavaliers: Forty Years of Cherokee History as Told in the Correspondence of the Ridge- Watie- Boudinot Family, ed. Edward Everett Dale and Gaston Litton (1939: reprint, Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1995), 8.
12 Richard Taylor to Elijah Hicks, Mar. 12, 1834, LR, OIA, reel 76, M- 234, NA.
13 Steven D. Byas and Stephen D. Byas, “James Standifer, Sequatchie Valley Congressman,” Tennessee Historical Quarterly 50, no. 2 (Summer 1991): 90- 97; Nancy N. Scott, ed., A Memoir of Hugh Lawson White (Philadelphia, 1856), 154, 170; W.H. Underwood to Benjamin F. Currey, Mar. 7, 1836, enclosed in Currey to Herring, Apr. 6, 1836, LR, OIA, reel 80, M- 234, NA; Benjamin F. Currey to Andrew Jackson, Nov. 24, 1834, LR, OIA, reel 76, M- 234, NA; Hugh Lawson White to J.A. Whiteside, Sept. 17, 1835, National Banner and Nashville Whig (Nashville, Tenn.), Sept. 17, 1835, 3.
14 Linda K. Kerber, “The Abolitionist Perception of the Indian,” Journal of American History 62, no. 2 (Sept. 1975): 271- 95; Manisha Sinha, The Slave’s Cause: A History of Abolition (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2016), 378; Sixth Annual Report of the Board of Managers of the Massachusetts Anti- Slavery Society (Boston, 1838), 4 (“primary object”); Hopkins Turney in the Congressional Globe (Washington, D.C., 1838), vol. 6, Appendix, 358 (“nothing more”); Joshua Holden to Benjamin F. Currey, Feb. 11, 1836, enclosed in Currey to Herring, Apr. 6, 1836, LR, OIA, reel 80, M- 234, NA; Rezin Rawlings to Benjamin F. Currey, Feb. 18, 1836, enclosed in Currey to Herring, Apr. 6, 1836, LR, OIA, reel 80, M- 234, NA.
15 Conference of John Ross, Edward Gunter, and John Mason, Jr., Nov. 6, 1837, PCJR, 1:537- 40; John Ross to Lewis Ross, Nov. 6 - Nov. 11, 1837, PCJR, 1:542 (“under circumstances”).
16 John Quincy Adams to Sherlock S. Gregory, Nov. 23, 1837, Adams Family Papers, Massachusetts Historical Society, reel 153; Sherlock Gregory to the Senate and House, Feb. 13, 1838, COIA, HR25A- G7.2, NA; Sherlock Gregory to the Senate and House, Dec. 3, 1837, COIA, HR25A- G7.2, NA;COIA, HR25A- G7.2, NA; John L. Brooke, Columbia Rising: Civil Life on the Upper Hudson from the Revolution to the Age of Jackson (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2010), 594n76; Memorial of Citizens of Condor, New York, Apr. 30, 1838, PM, COIA, SEN25A- H6, NA; Memorial of Citizens of Portland, Maine, May 7, 1838, PM, COIA, SEN25A- H6, NA; Memorial of Citizens of Holliston, Massachusetts, May 7, 1838, PM, COIA, SEN25A- H6, NA; Memorial of Citizens of Bristol, Connecticut, May 11, 1838, PM, COIA, SEN25A- H6, NA.
17 Memorial of Citizens of Union, New York, May 11, 1838, PM, COIA, SEN25A- H6, NA.
18 Memorial of Citizens of Concord, Massachusetts, May 11, 1838, PM, COIA, SEN25A- H6, NA.
19 25th Cong., 2nd sess., H.Doc. 316, pp. 2, 3 (“cup of bitterness”); 24th Cong., 1st sess., H.Doc. 286; 25th Cong., 2nd sess., S.Doc. 121, p. 36 (“fraud” and “delusion”); John F. Schermerhorn to Lewis Cass, Mar. 3, 1836, LR, OIA, reel 80, M- 234, NA (“overshot”); John Ridge and Stand Watie to John F. Schermerhorn, Feb. 28, 1836, enclosed in Schermerhorn to Lewis Cass, Feb. 27, 1836, LR, OIA, reel 80, M- 234, NA (“Do you love” and “rich”).
20 Wilson Lumpkin to Andrew Jackson, Sept. 24, 1836, LR, OIA, reel 80, M- 234, NA (“too ignorant”); Wilson Lumpkin, The Removal of the Cherokee Indians from Georgia (New York: Dodd, Mead, 1907), 1:167 (“treated as children”); Wilson Lumpkin to Andrew Jackson, Sept. 24, 1836, LR, OIA, reel 80, M- 234, NA (“just as much”); Southern Banner (Athens, Ga.), Nov. 12, 1835, 2; William Drayton, The South Vindicated from the Treason and Fanaticism of the Northern Abolitionists (Philadelphia, 1836), 102; Chancellor Harper, Memoir on Slavery (Charleston, 1838), 11- 12.
21 William Lindsay to C.A. Harris, July 20, 1837, LR, OIA, reel 114, M- 234, NA (“slave”); Theda Perdue, “Clan and Court: Another Look at the Early Cherokee Republic,” American Indian Quarterly 24, no. 4 (Autumn 2000): 562- 69; Daniel S. Butrick, Cherokee Removal: The Journal of Rev. Daniel S. Butrick (Park Hill, Okla.: Trail of Tears Association, 1998), 36 (“How vain”).
22 Amanda L. Paige, Fuller L. Bumpers, and Daniel F. Littlefield, Jr., Chickasaw Removal (Ada, Okla.: Chickasaw Press, 2010), 115- 70.
23 W. Williams to J.J. Abert, Feb. 8, 1838, Records of the Office of the Chief of Engineers, Map File, RG 77, U.S. 125- 6, NACP.
24 W. Williams to J.J. Abert, Feb. 8, 1838, Records of the Office of the Chief of Engineers, Map File, RG 77, U.S. 125- 6, NACP.
25 W. Williams to J.J. Abert, Feb. 8, 1838, Records of the Office of the Chief of Engineers, Map File, RG 77, U.S. 125- 6, NACP.
26 Alexander Macomb to Winfield Scott, Apr. 6, 1838, and Alexander Macomb to Winfield Scott, May 3, 1838, 25th Cong., 2d sess., H.Doc. 453, pp. 1- 2; Winfield Scott to Joel Poinsett, May 18, 1838, 25th Cong., 2d sess., H.Exec.Doc. 219, pp. 7- 8 (“an early”); W. Williams to J.J. Abert, Feb. 8, 1838, Records of the Office of the Chief of Engineers, Map File, RG 77, U.S. 125- 6, NACP (“the most inoffensive”)
27 .John Niven, John C. Calhoun and the Price of Union: A Biography (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1988), 215; Federal Union (Milledgeville, Ga.), June 6, 1833, 3; Washington News (Washington, Ga.), April 6, 1830, p. 3; George Washington Featherstonhaugh, A Canoe Voyage up the Minnay Sotor (London, 1847), 2:255- 56.
28 砂矿开采在一八三○年代初期枯竭之后，一八四○年代又出现第二次由硬岩开采引起的采矿潮。Otis E. Young, “The Southern Gold Rush, 1828- 1836,” Journal of Southern History 48, no. 3 (1982): 391; Georgia Constitutionalist (Augusta, Ga.), Aug. 2, 1838, 2 (“high price”). 在一八三○年代初期的乔治亚州，主导金矿产业的不是别人，正是比尔斯，但他不愿透露自己输出多少黄金到国外。我要谢谢安．达利跟我分享她对一八三○年代金矿产业的知识。
29 Southern Banner, Nov. 25, 1842, p. 2; Congressional Globe (Washington, D.C., 1838), vol. 6, Appendix, 562 (“permanent residence”).
30 Congressional Globe, vol. 6, Appendix, 480, 484- 85.
31 Congressional Globe, vol. 6, Appendix, 480, 484- 85.
32 Stephen Neal Dennis, A Proud Little Town: LaFayette, Georgia: 1835- 1885 (Walker County, Georgia Governing Authority, 2010), 209, 211.
33 根据一八五○年的美国普查，奴隶共有一千六百六十四人，白人共有一万一千四百零八人。
34 Thomas Jefferson, Notes on the State of Virginia (Philadelphia, 1788), 172- 73; Congressional Globe, vol. 6, Appendix, 361.
35 Congressional Globe, 6:423; John Ross to Mrs. Bayard, June 5, 1838, PCJR, 1:644.
36 Congressional Globe, 6:423; John Ross to Mrs. Bayard, June 5, 1838, PCJR, 1:644.
37 史考特抵达时，契罗基族的领土内有三十一连的义勇军。最后共有二十六连的正规军加入他们，不过史考特这时已经开始遣散志愿军。Winfield Scott to Joel Poinsett, May 18, 1838, and Winfield Scott to Joel Poinsett, June 15, 1838, 5th Cong., 2d sess., H.Doc. 453, pp. 7- 8, and 22- 23; Sarah H. Hill, “ ‘To Overawe the Indians and Give Confidence to the Whites’: Preparations for the Removal of the Cherokee Nation from Georgia,” Georgia Historical Quarterly 95, no. 4 (Winter 2011): 473 (“so large”); N.W. Pittman and H.P. Strickland to Henchin Strickland, June 6, 1838, folder 1, in the John R. Peacock Collection #1895- Z, SHC (“taking Indians” and “what it was cracked up”); Butrick, Cherokee Removal, 1- 2. Sarah H. Hill, “Cherokee Removal Scenes: Ellijay, Georgia, 1838,” Southern Spaces, Aug. 23, 2012, http://southernspaces .org/2012/cherokee -removal -scenes -ellijay -georgia -1838 (accessed July 7, 2016).
38 Hill, “ ‘To Overawe the Indians,” 490 (“no crime”); John Gray Bynum to J.H. Simpson, June 5, 1838,folder 25, in the William Preston Bynum Papers #117, SHC (“A more religious”); John R. Finger, The Eastern Band of Cherokees, 1819- 1900 (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1984), 20- 40, 105; Sharlotte Neely, Snowbird Cherokees: People of Persistence (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2002), 11- 35.
39 Butrick, Cherokee Removal, 1- 3, 6, 8, 9.
40 Dennis, A Proud Little Town, 256- 57 (“in every direction”); Winfield Scott to A.P. Bagby, June 26, 1838, LR, OIA, reel 82, M- 234, NA; John Kennedy, Thomas W. Wilson, and James Liddell to C.A. Harris, May 4, 1838, LR, OIA, reel 82, M- 234, NA (“ragged”); Butrick, Cherokee Removal, 4.
41 Return of Property left by Indians and sold by the Agents in Cass County, Georgia, and Return of Property for the Counties of Cherokee, AL, and Cobb, Gilmer, Floyd . . . in Georgia, Records Relating to Indian Removal, Records of the Commissary General of Subsistence, Cherokee Removal Records, First Board, Returns of Property, 1838, RG 75, entry 227, box 1, NA; Return of Property left by the Indians in Macon County, North Carolina (“work hands”), Records Relating to Indian Removal, Records of the Commissary General of Subsistence, Cherokee Removal Records, First Board, Returns of Property, 1838, RG 75, entry 227, box 2, NA.
42 Matthew T. Gregg and David M. Wishart, “The Price of Cherokee Removal,” Explorations in Economic History 49, no. 4 (Oct. 1, 2012): table 4, p. 431.
43 由于走北方路线和希尔德布兰路线的三支小队相关数据不足，我是用采取相同路线的其他队伍的死亡率来进行推断。Gregg and Wishart, “The Price of Cherokee Removal,” table 4, p. 431; Robert Remini, Andrew Jackson and the Course of American Democracy (New York: Harper & Row, 1984), 435- 36.
44 罗素．桑顿（Russell Thornton）预估总共有八千人死亡，是最常被引用的数字，但是俄克拉何马州历史协会的会长、同时也是契罗基族成员的杰克．贝克却指出桑顿的计算有误，因为他假定一八五一年的德伦侬名单包含了所有住在西部的契罗基人，可是事实上该名单只有囊括在新埃乔塔条约签订后进行迁移的那些人和他们的后代。一八五一年的旧拓居名单必须加进德伦侬名单，才能得到完整的契罗基族人口。贝克也有提到，由于一八五一年的旧拓居名单列出三千两百七十三人，桑顿预估一八三五年有五千人死亡似乎是不太可能的。修正这些错误后重新得到的数字约为三千五百人。一千人这个数字是从已知数据推断出来的。关于那三个死亡个案，请见：Butrick, Cherokee Removal, 41, 43, 45, 46, 47。
45 Grant Foreman, Indian Removal (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1932), 305, 311; George Hicks and Collins McDonald to John Ross, Mar. 15, 1839, PCJR, 1:701.
chapter 11 这不是罪
在乔治．西克斯率领的契罗基难民抵达印地安领地的两周前，第二步兵师的塞缪尔．罗素（Samuel Russell）上尉和七名手下打算沿着迈阿密河顺流而下，前往位于今日迈阿密市中心的达拉斯堡（Fort Dallas）。塞米诺尔族的枪手等到毫无防备的船只出现在射击范围内后，子弹齐发，击中罗素的胸膛。罗素下令把船停靠在对岸，他接着爬上岸，却被射中太阳穴，当场死亡。伍卓夫（Woodruff）少尉接下指挥权。这个寡不敌众的部队经历了一个小时的枪战、又折损一人后，才取回罗素的尸首，继续往达拉斯堡前进。一名军官写到，塞米诺尔人一如往常「凭着对该地区的完美认识而得以脱逃」。1
自从一八三六年年初，南方公民大张旗鼓地派出义勇军到佛罗里达领地的沼泽作战，并历经令人震撼的那几天后，战争的艰苦，就已经让轻松赢得胜利的期盼在他们心中破灭。卡斯曾自信满满地说，「展现数量可观的兵力」，就能让「被骗」的塞米诺尔人领悟自己错得有多离谱。结果，原来卡斯的这番话才是错得离谱。2塞米诺尔人比这位战争部长所预期的还要顽强许多，也比许多志愿兵所以为的还要可怕许多。
佛罗里达领地的原住民，他们继承了反抗殖民力量的悠久传统。十八世纪中叶，他们的曾祖父母首次来到这座半岛开辟村落，跟北方不断扩张的英属殖民地保持安全距离，同时又跟西班牙人维持够近的距离，以便进行互利互惠的贸易活动。克里克族之中，时不时会有反美派迁到此地，补充、强化了塞米诺尔人的战斗能力——最近期的例子是一八一三至一八一四年的美国与克里克人战争，及一八三六年的美国与克里克人战争。在一八三○年代，新来的克里克人往往是没有家眷的青年男子，背后的动机是想为亚拉巴马州的部落所遭受的损失复仇。这些男性虽然得到美国媒体极大的关注，因为他们就是让东北部读者兴奋不已、南部读者惊惧万分的典型嗜血战士，但是女性在抗美活动中也扮演了同样重要的角色。没有在生产子弹时，她们就在佛罗里达领地的沼泽，和高于周遭水域的零星土地上努力挣取生计，耕作、采集粮食作物，然后把食物藏好。她们成功打破了美军「让野蛮人饿到受不了后跑出来」的主要战略。3
