"Because he was the one who built everything up from the ground."
"Quite so. The opposition to authority was not least directed against the power of the clergy, the king, and the nobility. During the eighteenth century, these institu-tions had far more power in France than they had in England."
"Then came the French Revolution."
"Yes, in 1789. But the revolutionary ideas arose much earlier. The next key word is rationalism."
"I thought rationalism went out with Hume."
"Hume himself did not die until 1776. That was about twenty years after Montesquieu and only two years before Voltaire and Rousseau, who both died in 1778. But all three had been to England and were familiar with the philosophy of Locke. You may recall that Locke was not consistent in his empiricism. He believed, for example, that faith in God and certain moral norms were inherent in human reason. This idea is also the core of the French Enlightenment."
"You also said that the French have always been more rational than the British."
"Yes, a difference that goes right back to the Middle Ages. When the British speak of 'common sense,' the French usually speak of 'evident.' The English expression means 'what everybody knows,' the French means 'what is obvious'--to one's reason, that is."
"I see."
"Like the humanists of antiquity--such as Socrates and the Stoics--most of the Enlightenment philosophers had an unshakable faith in human reason. This was so characteristic that the French Enlightenment is often called the Age of Reason. The new natural sciences had revealed that nature was subject to reason. Now the Enlightenment philosophers saw it as their duty to lay a foundation for morals, religion, and ethics in accordance with man's immutable reason. This led to the enlightenment movement."
"The third point."
"Now was the time to start 'enlightening' the masses. This was to be the basis for a better society. People thought that poverty and oppression were the fault of ig-norance and superstition. Great attention was therefore focused on the education of children and of the people. It is no accident that the science of pedagogy was founded during the Enlightenment."
"So schools date from the Middle Ages, and pedagogy from the Enlightenment."
"You could say that. The greatest monument to the enlightenment movement was characteristically enough a huge encyclopedia. I refer to the Encyclopedia in 28 volumes published during the years from 1751 to 1772. All the great philosophers and men of letters contributed to it. 'Everything is to be found here,' it was said, 'from the way needles are made to the way cannons are founded.' " "The next point is cultural optimism," Sophie said.
"Would you oblige me by putting that card away while I am talking?"
"Excuse me."
"The Enlightenment philosophers thought that once reason and knowledge became widespread, humanity would make great progress. It could only be a question of time before irrationalism and ignorance would give way to an 'enlightened' humanity. This thought was dominant in Western Europe until the last couple of decades. Today we are no longer so convinced that all 'developments' are to the good.
"But this criticism of 'civilization' was already being voiced by French Enlightenment philosophers."
"Maybe we should have listened to them."
"For some, the new catchphrase was back to nature. But 'nature' to the Enlightenment philosophers meant almost the same as 'reason/ since human reason was a gift of nature rather than of religion or of 'civilization.' It was observed that the so-called primitive peoples were frequently both healthier and happier than Europeans, and this, it was said, was because they had not been 'civilized.' Rousseau proposed the catchphrase, 'We should return to nature.' For nature is good, and man is 'by nature' good; it is civilization which ruins him. Rousseau also believed that the child should be allowed to remain in its 'naturally' innocent state as long as possible. It would not be wrong to say that the idea of the intrinsic value of childhood dates from the Enlightenment. Previously, childhood had been considered merely a preparation for adult life. But we are all human beings--and we live our life on this earth, even when we are children."
"I should think so!"
"Religion, they thought, had to be made natural."
"What exactly did they mean by that?"
"They meant that religion also had to be brought into harmony with 'natural' reason. There were many who fought for what one could call a natural religion, and that is the sixth point on the list. At the time there were a lot of confirmed materialists who did not believe in a God, and who professed to atheism. But most of the Enlightenment philosophers thought it was irrational to imagine a world without God. The world was far too rational for that. Newton held the same view, for example. It was also considered rational to believe in the immortality of the soul. Just as for Descartes, whether or not man has an immortal soul was held to be more a question of reason than of faith."
"That I find very strange. To me, it's a typical case of what you believe, not of what you know."
"That's because you don't live in the eighteenth century. According to the Enlightenment philosophers, what religion needed was to be stripped of all the irrational dogmas or doctrines that had got attached to the simple teachings of Jesus during the course of ecclesiastical history."
"I see."
"Many people consequently professed to what is known as Deism."
"What is that?"
"By Deism we mean a belief that God created the world ages and ages ago, but has not revealed himself to the world since. Thus God is reduced to the 'Supreme Being' who only reveals himself to mankind through nature and natural laws, never in any 'supernatural' way. We find a similar 'philosophical God' in the writings of Aristotle. For him, God was the 'formal cause' or 'first mover.' "
"So now there's only one point left, human rights."
"And yet this is perhaps the most important. On the whole, you could say that the French Enlightenment was more practical than the English philosophy."
"You mean they lived according to their philosophy?"
"Yes, very much so. The French Enlightenment philosophers did not content themselves with theoretical views on man's place in society. They fought actively for what they called the 'natural rights' of the citizen. At first, this took the form of a campaign against censorship--for the freedom of the press. But also in matters of religion, morals, and politics, the individual's right to freedom of thought and utterance had to be secured. They also fought for the abolition of slavery and for a more humane treatment of criminals."
"I think I agree with most of that."
"The principle of the 'inviolability of the individual' culminated in the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen adopted by the French National Assembly in 178V. This Declaration of Human Rights was the basis for our own Norwegian Constitution of 1814."
"But a lot of people still have to fight for these rights."
"Yes, unhappily. But the Enlightenment philosophers wanted to establish certain rights that everybody was entitled to simply by being born. That was what they meant by natural rights.
"We still speak of a 'natural right' which can often be in conflict with the laws of the land. And we constantly find individuals, or even whole nations, that claim this 'natural right' when they rebel against anarchy, servitude, and oppression."
"What about women's rights?"
"The French Revolution in 1787 established a number of rights for all 'citizens.' But a citizen was nearly always considered to be a man. Yet it was the French Revolution that gave us the first inklings of feminism."
"It was about time!"
"As early as 1787 the Enlightenment philosopher Condorcet published a treatise on the rights of women. He held that women had the same 'natural rights' as men. During the Revolution of 1789, women were extremely active in the fight against the old feudal regime. For example, it was women who led the demonstrations that forced the king away from his palace at Versailles. Women's groups were formed in Paris. In addition to the demand for the same political rights as men, they also demanded changes in the marriage laws and in women's social conditions."
"Did they get equal rights?"
"No. Just as on so many subsequent occasions, the question of women's rights was exploited in the heat of the struggle, but as soon as things fell into place in a new regime, the old male-dominated society was re-introduced."
"Typical!"
"One of those who fought hardest for the rights of women during the French Revolution was Olympe de Gouges. In 1791--two years after the revolution--she published a declaration on the rights of women. The declaration on the rights of the citizen had not included any article on women's natural rights. Olympe de Gouges now demanded all the same rights for women as for men."
"What happened?"
"She was beheaded in 1793. And all political activity for women was banned."
"How shameful!"
"It was not until the nineteenth century that feminism really got under way, not only in France but also in the rest of Europe. Little by little this struggle began to bear fruit. But in Norway, for example, women did not get the right to vote until 1913. And women in many parts of the world still have a lot to fight for."
"They can count on my support."
Alberto sat looking across at the lake. After a minute or two he said:
"That was more or less what I wanted to say about the Enlightenment."
"What do you mean by more or less?"
"I have the feeling there won't be any more."
But as he said this, something began to happen in the middle of the lake. Something was bubbling up from the depths. A huge and hideous creature rose from the surface.
"A sea serpent!" cried Sophie.
The dark monster coiled itself back and forth a few times and then disappeared back into the depths. The water was as still as before.
Alberto had turned away.
"Now we'll go inside," he said.
They went into the little hut.
Sophie stood looking at the two pictures of Berkeley and Bjerkely. She pointed to the picture of Bjerkely and said:
"I think Hilde lives somewhere inside that picture."
An embroidered sampler now hung between the two pictures. It read: LIBERTY, EQUALITY AND FRATERNITY.
Sophie turned to Alberto: "Did you hang that there?"
He just shook his head with a disconsolate expression.
Then Sophie discovered a small envelope on the mantelpiece. "To Hilde and Sophie," it said. Sophie knew at once who it was from, but it was a new turn of events that he had begun to count on her.
She opened the letter and read aloud:
Dear both of you, Sophie's philosophy teacher ought to have underlined the significance of the French Enlightenment for the ideals and principles the UN is founded on. Two hundred years ago, the slogan "Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity" helped unite the people of France. Today the same words should unite the whole world. It is more important now than ever before to be one big Family of Man. Our descendants are our own children and grandchildren. What kind of world are they inheriting from us?
Hilde's mother was calling from downstairs that the mystery was starting in ten minutes and that she had put the pizza in the oven. Hilde was quite exhausted after all she had read. She had been up since six o'clock this morning.
She decided to spend the rest of the evening celebrating her birthday with her mother. But first she had to look something up in her encyclopedia.
Gouges ... no. De Gouges? No again. Olympe de Gouges? Still a blank. This encyclopedia had not written one single word about the woman who was beheaded for her political commitment. Wasn't that scandalous!
She was surely not just someone her father had thought up?
Hilde ran downstairs to get a bigger encyclopedia.
"I just have to look something up," she said to her astounded mother.
She took the FORV to GP volume of the big family encyclopedia and ran up to her room again.
Gouges ... there she was!
Gouges, Marie Olympe (1748-1793), Fr. author, played a prominent role during the French Revolution with numerous brochures on social questions and several plays. One of the few during the Revolution who campaigned for human rights to apply to women. In 1791 published "Declaration on the Rights of Women." Beheaded in 1793 for daring to defend Louis XVI and oppose Robespierre. (Lit: L. Lacour, "Les Origines du feminisme contem-porain," 1900)
启蒙
……从制针的技术到铸造大炮的方法……
席德正要开始阅读“文艺复兴”那一章时，听到楼下传来妈妈进门的声音。她看看钟，已经下午四点了。
妈妈跑上楼来，打开席德的房门。
“你没去教堂吗?”
“去啦。”
“可是……你穿什么衣服去的?”
“就是我现在身上穿的呀!”
“你的睡衣吗?”
“那是一座中世纪的古老岩石教堂。”
“席德！”
她把讲义夹滑到怀中，抬起头来看着妈妈。
“妈，我忘记时间了。对不起，可是我正在读一些很有趣的东西。”
妈妈忍不住笑起来。
“这是一本很神奇的书。”席德说。
“好吧。我再说一次生日快乐，席德!”
“又来了，我都快听烦了。”
“可是我还没有……我要去休息一会，然后我会弄一顿丰盛的晚餐。你知道吗?我好不容易买到一些草莓。”
“好。那我就继续看书啰。”
妈妈走出房间。席德继续看下去。
苏菲跟着汉密士来到镇上。在艾伯特的门廊上，她看到一张刚从黎巴嫩寄来的明信片。上面的日期也是六月十五日。
席德已经逐渐了解这些日期安排的模式了。那些在六月十五日以前的明信片是席德已经接到的那些明信片的副本。而那些写着六月十五日的明信片则是她今天才第一次在讲义夹里看到的。
亲爱的席德：现在苏菲已经到哲学家的家里来了。她很快就要满十五岁了，但你昨天就满十五了。还是今天呢?如果是今天的话，那么信到得本迟了。不过我们两个的时间并不一定一致……席德读到艾伯特和苏菲谈论文艺复兴运动与新科学，还有十七世纪理性主义者与英国的经验主义。
每一次席德看到父亲设法夹藏在故事中的明信片和生日贺词时，都吓了一跳。他让它们从苏菲的作业本里掉出来，在香蕉皮内层出现，有的甚至藏在电脑程式里。他轻而易举地让艾伯特把苏菲的名字叫成席德。最过分的是他居然让汉密士开口说：“席德，生日快乐!”
席德同意艾伯特的说法，爸爸是做得太过分了一些，居然把自己比做上帝和天意。可是让艾伯特说这些话的人不正是她的爸爸吗?其实她想想，爸爸将自己比做上帝毕竟也不算很那个，因为在苏菲的世界里面，爸爸不就像是一个无所不能的上帝吗?当艾伯特谈到柏克莱的哲学时，席德和苏菲一样完全被迷惑了。下一步会发生什么事呢?书里已经多次暗示当他们谈到这位不认为人的意识之外有物质世界存在的哲学家(席德偷偷看了一下百科全书)时，就会有一件很特别的事发生。
这章一开始是艾伯特和苏菲两人站在窗前，看着那架拖着长长的“生日快乐”布条的小飞机。这个时候，乌云开始在市区上方聚集。
因此，tobeornottobe并不是唯一的问题。问题在于我们是什么。我们真的是血肉之躯的人类吗?我们的世界是由真实的事物组成的吗?或者我们只是受到心灵的包围?难怪苏菲要开始咬指甲。席德过去从来没有咬指甲的坏习惯，不过她现在很同情苏菲。最后一切终于明朗化了：“……对于你我来说，这个‘造成万物中之万物’的‘意志或灵’可能是席德的父亲。”
