在道德哲理的呼吁之外,英国方面不甚乐意的真正原因还是政治因素:英国不想在中东的阿拉伯人与犹太人之间造成爆炸性的政治形势。但是,由于缺乏任何欧洲伙伴的强力合作,英国未能真正阻止逃向西方的浪潮继续蔓延。英国阻止犹太人前往巴勒斯坦的努力略为成功,在英国皇家海军的护送下,搭载着数万犹太移民的地中海船只,转道前往塞浦路斯的特别难民营。
但这完全是徒劳无功,英国最后也无能为力。1946年夏天,犹太复国主义者开始对英国派驻巴勒斯坦的机构发动恐怖袭击(主要起因是战后英国反犹主义崛起)。一年后,英国开始减少耶路撒冷的驻军。1947年11月底,在犹太复国主义者的强力游说后,联合国投票通过将巴勒斯坦部分地区授予犹太人,让他们建立自己的国家。最终,在1948年,在犹太人与巴勒斯坦阿拉伯人之间势均力敌的内战后,以色列国得以巩固。犹太人可以无拘无束地在世界上一个小小角落找到自己的家园。
此处不宜展开讨论以色列人与阿拉伯人之间从那时开始的残酷冲突,这种冲突至今充斥着我们的报纸版面。我们只能说,犹太人当时抓住了一个千载难逢的绝好机会。考虑到他们在近代史上的经历,人们很难指责他们自主建国的愿望,借用巴勒斯坦历史学家的说法,阿拉伯人“实在想不明白,自己为什么要为纳粹大屠杀付出代价”。[62]无论如何,大批欧洲犹太人最终找到了一个自己当家做主的国家,在那里,他们不会受到迫害,在那里,他们可以遵循自己的生活方式。以色列不仅是应许之地,还是希望之地。
然而,作为这一过程的结果,犹太人一度生活于此的欧洲地区发生了不可逆转的变化。在战争爆发前,波兰曾经是文化与族群的大熔炉,但此时已经面目全非。从某种程度上来看,整个东欧都是如此。
及至1948年,许多地区都达到了甚至超过了希特勒时代的设想,犹太人不复存在。
[1] Roman Halter,letter to Martin Gilbert,Martin,The Boys(London:Phoenix,1997),pp.266-8.另可参阅IWM Sound,17183,reel 10。
[2] Blom,J. C. H. et al.(eds.),The History of the Jews in the Netherlands,trans. Arnold J. Pomerans and Erica Pomerans(Oxford and Portland,OR:Littman Library of Jewish Civilization,2002),p.337.
[3] Lewkowicz,Bea,‘“After the War We Were All Together”:Jewish Memories of Postwar Thessaloniki’,in Mark Mazower(ed.),After the War Was Over(Princeton and Oxford:Princeton University Press,2000),p.260.
[4] Hondius,Dienke,Return:Holocaust Survivors and Dutch Anti-Semitism,trans. David Colmer(Westport,CT:Praeger,2003),p.104.
[5] Report in Neue Welt,no.1,引自Gringauz,Samuel,‘Our New German Policy and the DP’s:Why Immediate Resettlement is Imperative’,Commentary,vol. 5,no. 3(June 1948),p.512。
[6] Abba Kovner,引自Bauer,Yehuda,Flight and Rescue:Brichah(New York:Random House,1970),p.36;Gringauz,Samuel,‘Jewish Destiny as the DP’s See It:The Ideology of the Surviving Remnant’,Commentary(Journal of the American Jewish Committee),vol. 4,no. 6(December 1947),p.504.
[7] Levi,Primo,Survival in Auschwitz and The Reawakening:Two Memoirs,trans. Stuart Woolf(New York:Summit Books,1986),p.373.
[8] Hondius,Dienke,Return:Holocaust Survivors and Dutch Anti-Semitism,trans. David Colmer(Westport,CT:Praeger,2003),pp.55,77.
[9] Hondius,Dienke,Return:Holocaust Survivors and Dutch Anti-Semitism,trans. David Colmer(Westport,CT:Praeger,2003),pp.78-82.
[10] Hondius,Dienke,Return:Holocaust Survivors and Dutch Anti-Semitism,trans. David Colmer(Westport,CT:Praeger,2003),p.80.
[11] Levi,Fabio,‘Italian Society and Jews after the Second World War:Between Silence and Reparation’,in Jonathan Dunnage(ed.),After the War:Violence,Justice,Continuity and Renewal in Italian Society(Market Harborough:Troubador,1999),p.26.
[12] 如可参阅Beevor,Antony and Artemis Cooper,Paris After the Liberation(London:Penguin,1995),p.172;Hitchcock,William I.,Liberation:The Bitter Road to Freedom,Europe 1944-1945(London:Faber & Faber,2009),pp.267-72;Rioux,Jean-Pierre,The Fourth Republic 1944-1958,trans. Godfrey Rogers(Cambridge University Press,1987),pp.13-16。
[13] Hondius,Dienke,Return:Holocaust Survivors and Dutch Anti-Semitism,trans. David Colmer(Westport,CT:Praeger,2003),pp.76,79-80,93-5.
[14] F.C.Brasz,“After the Second World War:From‘Jewish Church’to Cultural Minority”,in Blom,J. C. H. et al.(eds.),The History of the Jews in the Netherlands,trans. Arnold J. Pomerans and Erica Pomerans(Oxford and Portland,OR:Littman Library of Jewish Civilization,2002),p.337.
[15] Rita Koopman,Ab Caransa,Gerhard Durlacher and Mrs’t Hoen,引自Hondius,Dienke,Return:Holocaust Survivors and Dutch Anti-Semitism,trans. David Colmer(Westport,CT:Praeger,2003),p.100。
[16] 引自Hondius,Dienke,Return:Holocaust Survivors and Dutch Anti-Semitism,trans. David Colmer(Westport,CT:Praeger,2003),p.100。
[17] Hitchcock,William I.,Liberation:The Bitter Road to Freedom,Europe 1944-1945(London:Faber & Faber,2009),pp.271-2.
[18] Newspaper story,引自Pelle,János,Az utoisó vérvádak(Budapest:Pelikán,1995),pp.228-9。
[19] Ethel Landerman testimony,引自Shephard,Ben,The Long Road Home:The Aftermath of the Second World War(London:Bodley Head,2010),p.393。
[20] 引自Kenez,Peters,Hungary from the Nazis to the Soviets:The Establishment of the Communist Regime in Hungary,1944-1945(New York:Cambridge University Press,2009),p.158。
[21] Hondius,Dienke,Return:Holocaust Survivors and Dutch Anti-Semitism,trans. David Colmer(Westport,CT:Praeger,2003),pp.77-8.
[22] Myant,Martin,Socialism and Democracy in Czechoslovakia,1945-1948(Cambridge University Press,1981),p.103;Pelle,János,Az utoisó vérvádak(Budapest:Pelikán,1995),151;Jean Ancel,“The Seizure of Jewish Property in Romania”,in United States Holocaust Memorial Museum,The Confiscation of Jewish Property in Europe 1933-1945:Symposium Proceedings(New York:USHMM Center for Advanced Holocaust Studies,2003),pp.43-55.
[23] Gross,Jan T.,Fear:Anti-Semitism in Poland after Auschwitz(New York:Random House,2006),p.44.
[24] 如可参阅Kovaly,Heda Margolis,Prague Farewell,trans. Franci Epstein and Helen Epstein(London:Gollancz,1988),pp.56-7;Acheson,Dean,Present at the Creation:My Years at the State Department(New York:Norton,1969),p.357;Gross,Jan T.,Fear:Anti-Semitism in Poland after Auschwitz(New York:Random House,2006),pp.39-51;Lewkowicz,Bea,‘“After the War We Were All Together”:Jewish Memories of Postwar Thessaloniki’,in Mark Mazower(ed.),After the War Was Over(Princeton and Oxford:Princeton University Press,2000),p.260;Gilbert,Martin,The Boys(London:Phoenix,1997),pp.268,274。
[25] 关于昆马达拉什等事件的详细分析,参阅Pelle,János,Az utoisó vérvádak(Budapest:Pelikán,1995),pp.151-68。
[26] Eszter Toth Kabai interview in Haladás,引自Pelle,János,Az utoisó vérvádak(Budapest:Pelikán,1995),p.161。
[27] Pelle,János,Az utoisó vérvádak(Budapest:Pelikán,1995),pp.157-60.
[28] Pelle,János,Az utoisó vérvádak(Budapest:Pelikán,1995),p.160.
[29] Kenez,Peters,Hungary from the Nazis to the Soviets:The Establishment of the Communist Regime in Hungary,1944-1945(New York:Cambridge University Press,2009),pp.159-60;犹太历史学家声称有3人死亡,有18人受伤,参阅Éva Vörös,“Kunmadaras Újabb adatok a pogrom történetéhez”,Múlt és jövo,no.4(1994)。
[30] Pelle,János,Az utoisó vérvádak(Budapest:Pelikán,1995),pp.161,162.
[31] Pelle,János,Az utoisó vérvádak(Budapest:Pelikán,1995),p.173.
[32] Levi,Fabio,‘Italian Society and Jews after the Second World War:Between Silence and Reparation’,in Jonathan Dunnage(ed.),After the War:Violence,Justice,Continuity and Renewal in Italian Society(Market Harborough:Troubador,1999),pp.28-9.
[33] Gross,Jan T.,Fear:Anti-Semitism in Poland after Auschwitz(New York:Random House,2006),pp.47-51.
[34] Siklos,Pierre L.,War Finance,Reconstruction,Hyperinflation and Stabilization in Hungary,1938-48(Basingstoke:Macmillan,1991),p.1.
[35] 引自Eby,Cecil D.,Hungary at War:Civilians and Soldiers in World War Ⅱ(Philadelphia:Pennsylvania State University Press,1998),p.287。
[36] 例如,在匈牙利,不仅共产党高层都是犹太人,而且在1945年大约有14%的普通党员也是犹太人,但犹太人只占该国总人口的1%~2%。参阅Kenez,Peters,Hungary from the Nazis to the Soviets:The Establishment of the Communist Regime in Hungary,1944-1945(New York:Cambridge University Press,2009),p.156。
[37] Pelle,János,Az utoisó vérvádak(Budapest:Pelikán,1995),p.206.
[38] Pelle,János,Az utoisó vérvádak(Budapest:Pelikán,1995),p.160.
[39] Kenez,Peters,Hungary from the Nazis to the Soviets:The Establishment of the Communist Regime in Hungary,1944-1945(New York:Cambridge University Press,2009),pp.159-61;Pelle,János,Az utoisó vérvádak(Budapest:Pelikán,1995),pp.212-30.
[40] Letter,Mór Reinchardt to the president of the Hungarian Jewish Bureau,5 August 1946,引自Pelle,János,Az utoisó vérvádak(Budapest:Pelikán,1995),pp.166-7。
[41] Ben Helfgott,personal interview,19 May 2008.
[42] Gross,Jan T.,Fear:Anti-Semitism in Poland after Auschwitz(New York:Random House,2006),p.35.
[43] Bauer,Yehuda,Flight and Rescue:Brichah(New York:Random House,1970),p.15;Gross,Jan T.,Fear:Anti-Semitism in Poland after Auschwitz(New York:Random House,2006),p.36.
[44] Gross,Jan T.,Fear:Anti-Semitism in Poland after Auschwitz(New York:Random House,2006),pp.74-5.
[45] Gross,Jan T.,Fear:Anti-Semitism in Poland after Auschwitz(New York:Random House,2006),p.82.
[46] 以下描述基于Gross对波兰档案中关于大屠杀证据的摘要,Gross,Jan T.,Fear:Anti-Semitism in Poland after Auschwitz(New York:Random House,2006),pp.81-117。
[47] 引自Gross对波兰档案中关于大屠杀证据的摘要,Gross,Jan T.,Fear:Anti-Semitism in Poland after Auschwitz(New York:Random House,2006),p.89.
[48] Gross对波兰档案中关于大屠杀证据的摘要,Gross,Jan T.,Fear:Anti-Semitism in Poland after Auschwitz(New York:Random House,2006),pp.93,113.
[49] Bauer,Yehuda,Flight and Rescue:Brichah(New York:Random House,1970),p.210;Gross,Jan T.,Fear:Anti-Semitism in Poland after Auschwitz(New York:Random House,2006),p.138.
[50] Gross,Jan T.,Fear:Anti-Semitism in Poland after Auschwitz(New York:Random House,2006),p.98.关于对共产党当日的行动更为同情的观点,参阅Bauer,Yehuda,Flight and Rescue:Brichah(New York:Random House,1970),pp.206-11。关于对屠杀责任讨论中的相反观点,参阅Kochavi,Arieh J.,Post-Holocaust Politics(Chapel Hill and London:University of North Carolina Press,2001),p.175。
[51] Gilbert,Martin,The Boys(London:Phoenix,1997),p.275.
[52] Gilbert,Martin,The Boys(London:Phoenix,1997),p.271.
[53] Report,Joseph Levine to Moses Leavitt,24 October 1945,引自Hitchcock,William I.,Liberation:The Bitter Road to Freedom,Europe 1944-1945(London:Faber & Faber,2009),p.334。
[54] Kochavi,Arieh J.,Post-Holocaust Politics(Chapel Hill and London:University of North Carolina Press,2001),pp.173,227-8;Gross,Jan T.,Fear:Anti-Semitism in Poland after Auschwitz(New York:Random House,2006),p.218.
[55] Kochavi,Arieh J.,Post-Holocaust Politics(Chapel Hill and London:University of North Carolina Press,2001),pp.175,187;Bauer,Yehuda,Flight and Rescue:Brichah(New York:Random House,1970),pp.216-23;Shephard,Ben,The Long Road Home:The Aftermath of the Second World War(London:Bodley Head,2010),pp.186-9,235-6.
[56] Bauer,Yehuda,Flight and Rescue:Brichah(New York:Random House,1970),pp.211-12.其他作者基于不同标准,提供了不同数字,但都显示7~8月的大幅增长,如可参阅Gross,Jan T.,Fear:Anti-Semitism in Poland after Auschwitz(New York:Random House,2006),p.43。
[57] Gross,Jan T.,Fear:Anti-Semitism in Poland after Auschwitz(New York:Random House,2006),p.43;Bauer,Yehuda,Flight and Rescue:Brichah(New York:Random House,1970),pp.295,298;Kochavi,Arieh J.,Post-Holocaust Politics(Chapel Hill and London:University of North Carolina Press,2001),p.185.
[58] Bauer,Yehuda,Flight and Rescue:Brichah(New York:Random House,1970),pp.318-20.基于不同时期的类似统计数字,参阅Prażmowska,Anita,Civil War in Poland 1942-1948(Basingstoke:Palgrave Macmillan,2004),p.176;以及Kochavi,Arieh J.,Post-Holocaust Politics(Chapel Hill and London:University of North Carolina Press,2001),p.227.Proudfoot的表35 基于前往以色列的移民的统计数字,提供了略高的数字。
[59] Shephard,Ben,The Long Road Home:The Aftermath of the Second World War(London:Bodley Head,2010),pp.190-99;Bauer,Yehuda,Flight and Rescue:Brichah(New York:Random House,1970),p.319.
[60] Bauer,Yehuda,Flight and Rescue:Brichah(New York:Random House,1970),pp.319-21.
[61] British Foreign Office to Washington,5 October 1945,TNA:PRO FO 1049/81.Bevin,引自Shephard,Ben,The Long Road Home:The Aftermath of the Second World War(London:Bodley Head,2010),p.191。
[62] Walid Khalidi,引自Shephard,Ben,The Long Road Home:The Aftermath of the Second World War(London:Bodley Head,2010),p.356。