[20] Alexis de Tocqueville，Democracy in America，trans. and ed. Harvey C. Mansfield and Delba Winthrop（Chicago，2000[originally published 1835，1840]），386.
[21] Olive Cleaveland Clarke，Things That I Remember at Ninety-Five（1881），10-11. This was in 1802.
[22] Bureau of the Census，Statistical Abstract of the United States（Washington，1983）. For slave fertility，see Robert Fogel and Stanley Engerman，eds.，Without Consent or Contract：The Rise and Fall of American Slavery（New York，1989），149. See also Andrew R.L. Cayton，“The Early National Period，” Encyclopedia of American Social History，ed. Mary Kupiec Cayton et al.，3 vols.（New York，1993），Ⅰ∶100.
[23] Warren S. Thompson，“The Demographic Revolution in the United States，” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Sciences，no.262（1949）：62-69；Andrew Cayton，“The Early National Period，” 88.
[24] Allen Trimble，1783-1870 Autobiography and Correspondence（1909），74；Gershom Flagg，The Flagg Correspondence Selected Letters，1816-1854，eds.，Barbara Lawrence and Nedra Branz（Carbondale，1986），5-7；William J. Baumol，Productivity and American Leadership（Cambridge，MA，1991），34-35.
[25] Arnold Pacey，Technology in World Civilization：A Thousand-Year History（Cambridge，1991），135-41.
[26] Lynn Hunt，Thomas R. Martin，Barbara H. Rosenwein，R. Po-chia Hsia，and Bonnie G. Smith，The Making of the West：People and Cultures，A Concise History，2nd ed.（Boston，2007），708.
[27] John Majewski，A House Dividing：Economic Development in Pennsylvania and Virginia before the Civil War（New York，2000），111-40.
[28] Joseph A. Schumpeter，Capitalism，Socialism and Democracy，3rd ed.（New York，1950），83.
[29] Maarten Prak，ed.，Early Modern Capitalism：Economic and Social Change in Europe，1400-1800（New York，2001），194ff；“Werner von Siemens，”Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie，online version，vol. 55（Historische Kommission bei der Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften und der Bayerischen Staatsbibliothek，2007）：203-13.
[30] Colleen A. Dunlavy，Politics and Industrialization：Early Railroads in the United States and Prussia（Princeton，1994），202-05.
[31] Clive Trebilcock，The Industrialization of the Continental Powers，1780-1914（London，1981），44-46，172-77；Stiles，First Tycoon，82-85；Dunlavy，Politics and Industrialization，38-41.
[32] Trebilcock，Industrialization of Continental Powers，173-74；Robert E. Wright and Richard Sylla，eds.，The History of Corporate Finance：Development of Anglo-American Securities Markets，Financial Practices，Theories and Laws，4 vols.（London，2003），iv.
[33] Timor Kuran，“Explaining the Economic Trajectories of Civilizations：The Systemic Approach，” Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization（2009）.
[34] Caroline Fohlin，Finance Capitalism and Germany’s Rise to Industrial Power（New York，2007），65-69.
[35] Charles P. Kindleberger，A Financial History of Western Europe，2nd ed.（Oxford，1993[1984]），102-10.
[36] Thorstein Veblen，Capitalism，Socialism and Democracy，3rd ed.（New York，1950），83.
[37] Trebilcock，Industrialization of Continental Powers，40；Fohlin，Finance Capitalism and Germany’s Rise to Industrial Power，220-21.
[38] Margaret C. Jacob，Strangers Nowhere in the World：The Rise of Cosmopolitanism in Early Modern Europe（Philadelphia，2006），76-77；Thomas K. McGraw，“American Capitalism” in Thomas K. McGraw，ed.，Creating Modern Capitalism：How Entrepreneurs，Companies，and Countries Triumphed in Three Industrial Revolutions（Cambridge，1995），335.
[39] Robert C. Allen，“The British Industrial Revolution in Global Perspective，”（2006）：29[available on the Internet]；Kenneth Pomeranz and Steven Topik，The World That Trade Created：Society，Culture，and the World Economy，2nd ed.（Armonk，NY，2006），113.
[40] Irwin Unger，Greenback Era：A Social and Political History of American Finance，1865-1879（Princeton，1964），13-20.
[41] Mark Twain and Charles Dudley Warner，The Gilded Age（New York，1873）.
[42] Stephen Mihm，A Nation of Counterfeiters：Capitalists，Con Men，and the Making of the United States（Cambridge，MA，2007），69-74.
[43] Wright，History of Corporate Finance，Ⅰ∶ⅳ；Timothy W. Guinnane，Ron Harris，Naomi R. Lamoreaux，and Jean-Laurent Rosenthal，“Putting the Corporation in Its Place，” Enterprise and Society，8（2007）：690-91.
[44] Kindleberger，Financial History of Western Europe，196.
[45] Wright，History of Corporate Finance，Ⅰ∶x-xxvii.
[46] McGraw，“American Capitalism” in McGraw，ed.，Creating Modern Capitalism，315-16.
[47] Guinnane，Harris，Lamoreaux，and Rosenthal，“Putting the Corporation in Its Place”：698.
[48] Trebilcock，Industrialization of Continental Powers，54，64-66.
[49] Walter A. Moss，An Age of Progress？：Clashing Twentieth Century Forces（New York，2008），58-59，
[50] Jeffrey A. Frieden，Global Capitalism：Its Fall and Rise in the Twentieth Century（New York，2006），6-7，14-19，42-43.
[51] A striking exception to this generalization can be found in Colleen Dunlavy and Thomas Weisskopp，“Myths and Peculiarities：Comparing U.S. and German Capitalism，” German Historical Bulletin，41（2007）.
[52] Henry James，“The German Experience and the Myth of British Cultural Exceptionalism，” in Bruce Collins and Keith Robbins，eds.，British Culture and Economic Decline（London，1990），108.
[53] Steve N. Broadberry，“How Did the United States and Germany Overtake Britain？：A Sectoral Analysis of Comparative Productivity Levels，1870-1990，”Journal of Economic History，58（1998）：375-76.
[54] Margaret C. Jacob and Larry Stewart，Practical Matter：Newton’s Science in the Service of Industry and Empire，1687-1851（Cambridge，2004），126-27.
