例句 1. In Denmark and Sweden agricultural reforms took place gradually from the late eighteenth century, resulting in a new class of peasant landowners with a definite market orientation. 在18世纪末期，丹麦和瑞典的农业改革逐步展开，从而形成了一个新的具有明确市场定位的农民土地所有者阶层。
2. It is necessary to provide orientation for new campus staff. 让新的教职工熟悉环境是非常必要的。
同义 direction（n. 方向）
output［'autput］n. 产量；输出；产品
例句 A daily input of water and food is matched by an output of sewage and solid waste, which has been changed in some way. 水和食物的日投入量与污水及固体垃圾的产出量是成比例的，但在某种程度上这种比例改变了。
同义 yield（n. 产量）；export（n. 输出）；production（n. 产品）
peasant［'peznt］n. 农民
例句 The high prices encouraged local peasants to improve their animal husbandry techniques actively. 高昂的价格鼓励当地农民积极提高他们的畜牧业技术水平。
pillar［'pilər］n. 柱，支柱；栋梁
例句 From a practical aspect, this supporting back pillar protects the figures against breakage and gives the images a sense of strength and power. 从实用方面来说，雕塑背后的支柱保护它们免遭破坏，并且能给予这些形象一股力量。
pioneer［ˌpaiə'nir］n. 开拓者；创始人 v. 开拓，开创
例句 1. The changes that appear in an ecosystem from the pioneer to the climax community can be seen in one human generation. 从一代人中，我们可以看到一种生态系统从开始到高峰的发展变化。
2. Local music store owners pioneered their own recording industry. 当地音乐商店的店主们开拓了自己的录制产业。
同义 exploit（v. 开拓）
platform［'plætfɔ:rm］n. 平台；站台；（政党的）纲领
例句 Offshore drilling platforms may also lose oil that drift ashore, harming the environment. 海上的钻井台也可能出现漏油现象，浮油漂向岸边，对环境造成危害。
pose［pouz］n. 姿势 v. 摆姿势；造成
例句 Statues of the well-known person are in still poses, while statues of the unknown person are in active poses. 名人的雕像纹丝不动地站着，然而那些无名氏的雕像总是摇摇晃晃。
要点 pose除了可以表示“姿势”以外，在阅读中作为动词“造成”的含义也很常见，例如：Outside its native regions, Spartina can pose serious problems by turning mudflats into high marshes that are inhospitable to many native fish and birds.
position［pə'ziʃn］n. 位置；立场 v. 安置
例句 1. In general, carnivores occupy a higher position on the food chain. 一般来说，食肉动物在食物链中占据较高的位置。
2. In the rising wind, the boys have positioned themselves to counterbalance the tilt of the boat as it speeds along in a choppy sea. 风越来越大，男孩们摆好姿势，来平衡在波浪起伏的大海中急速行驶的船的倾斜。
potent［'poutnt］a. 强有力的，有说服力的；（药等）效力大的
例句 The third and the most potent limitation is that it is not possible to be certain that the infant's response was due to the stimulus presented. 第三点，并且是最有力的局限是我们不能确定婴儿的反应是刺激引起的。
prediction［pri'dikʃn］n. 预言，预料，预报
例句 His successful prediction of the properties of some unknown elements lent support to the acceptance of the periodic law. 他成功地预言了一些未知元素的特性，有助于元素周期律被人们接受。
predominate［pri'dɑ:mineit］v. 统治，支配；占优势
例句 1. A primary group involves two or more people who enjoy an intimate relationship with each other and expressive ties predominate in it. 一个初级群体包含关系亲密的两个及两个以上的人，而情感关系在这当中占主导位置。
2. Red and yellow predominate in these flowers. 这些花朵以红色和黄色为主。
prehistoric［ˌpri:hi'stɔ:rik］a. 史前的；陈旧的
例句 1. A large amount of prehistoric art was created by right-handed artists, which indicated that they may be more expert in arts. 大量的史前艺术是由右撇子的艺术家创作的，这说明他们可能更擅长艺术。
2. Archaeology has long been an accepted tool for studying prehistoric cultures. 考古学长期以来都是研究史前文化所普遍使用的工具。
preposterous［pri'pɑ:stərəs］a. 荒谬的
例句 In the ancient times, this view seemed preposterous. 在古代，这一观念看起来是荒谬的。
presentation［ˌpri:zen'teiʃn］n. 提供；陈述；表演
例句 Although music and speech had frequently occurred in film presentations before the 1920s, there was a strong desire to add sound to the films. 尽管在20世纪20年代之前音乐和语言已经频频出现于电影中，但是为电影加上声音的愿望仍然很强烈。
prestige［pre'sti:ʒ］n. 威望；声望；影响力
例句 1. His success lent prestige to those artists who used photographs as models for paintings. 他的成功为那些用照片作为绘画模型的艺术家们带来了影响。
2. No other colonial artisans rivaled the silversmiths' prestige. 殖民地其他的工匠都无法与银匠的声望匹敌。
同义 reputation（n. 声望）
prior［'praiər］a. 在…前的；优先的
例句 1. This new voyage would have enabled humans to enter southern areas of the Americas prior to the melting of the continental glaciers. 这条新航线本来可以使人类在大陆冰川融化之前进入美国南部地区。
2. Prior to this project, the development of these parks was very limited and funding meager. 在这个项目开展之前，这些公园的开发非常有限，资金也很缺乏。
同义 preceding（a. 在…前的）
pristine［'pristi:n］a. 早期的；质朴的；新鲜而纯净的
例句 At one time it was thought that these matrix grains might be pristine nebular dust, the sort of stuff from which chondrules and inclusions were made. 这些矩阵颗粒曾一度被认为可能是早期星云的尘埃，即陨石球粒和它内在物质的组成物质。
probability［ˌprɑ:bə'biləti］n. 可能性；可能发生的事；概率
例句 The probability that the Third World War will occur is too small. 发生第三次世界大战的概率很小。
proceed［prou'si:d］v. 进行；发生；继续下去
例句 1. He proceeded to teach himself geology and when he was twenty-four, he went to the company that was excavating the Somerset Coal Canal. 他继续研习地质学，在24岁的时候，他去了一家挖掘萨默赛特煤矿运河的公司。
2. As proceeding toward the Southeast, broadleaf vegetation becomes dominant. 越往西南地区，阔叶植被越多。
profound［prə'faund］a. 深远的；知识渊博的；深奥的
例句 1. This technological shift caused profound changes in the complexity of German societies. 这项技术的转变给复杂的德国社会带来了深远的影响。
2. The transition to settled life had a profound impact on the society. 向稳定生活的转变对社会有着深远的影响。
prolong［prə'lɔ:ŋ］v. 拉长，延长；拖延
例句 1. Being resistant to the vicissitudes of ocean, the plankton can survive prolonged immersion in saltwater. 这种浮游生物可以抵御海洋的变化无常，因此可以长期浸泡在盐水之中。
2. There is no drug that could prolong one's life. 没有什么药能使人延年益寿。
propose［prə'pouz］v. 建议，提议；打算
例句 1. Several solutions to the upcoming water supply crisis have been proposed, but none of them were adopted by the government. 面临即将到来的供水危机，提出的几条建议中没有一条被政府采纳。
2. A number of schemes were proposed for sending numerous pictures and files via the Internet. 人们提出许多通过网络发送大量图片和文件的方案。
prosperous［'prɑ:spərəs］a. 繁荣富强的，兴旺的
例句 Trade between the West and the settled and prosperous Chinese dynasties introduced new things and different technologies. 在西方国家和安定富强的中国历代王朝的贸易中，很多新鲜事物和不同的科技得到了引进。
raise［reiz］v. 举起；提升；增加；饲养；引起 n. 提升；增加
搭配 raise one's pay 涨工资
例句 In WWI, the United States raised an army because of the recruitment and Selective Service Act. 在第一次世界大战期间，由于新兵招募和《选征兵役法案》，美国组建了一支军队。
rapid［'ræpid］a. 迅速的，快的
例句 The major effect was the rapid growth of the human population. 最主要的影响是快速增长的人口问题。
rational［'ræʃnəl］a. 理性的，理智的；合理的
例句 Rational appeals in advertising aimed at children should certainly be limited until the children are ready in emotional and psychological aspects. 广告中针对孩子的理性诉求应该受到限制，直到他们在情感和心理方面成熟为止。
ravage［'ræviʤ］n./v. 严重损坏；（尤指军队等）抢劫，掠夺
例句 As the ravages of the thirty years' war, textile production had to move into the countryside for further development. 由于30年战争的严重破坏，纺织业不得不为了长远发展而搬到农村。
readiness［'redinəs］n. 敏捷，迅速；准备就绪
例句 By this means, the soldiers signal their readiness. 通过这种方式，士兵们互相示意他们已经准备就绪。
realm［relm］n. 国度；界，领域
例句 Several types of control united the Roman realm, just as cement held Roman walls together. 几种类型的管理制度使罗马帝国团结在一起，就像水泥构建了坚固的罗马城墙一样。
reasonable［'ri:znəbl］a. 合理的；有道理的；通情达理的
搭配 a reasonable excuse 合理的借口
例句 Although it seems reasonable to believe that colonization expeditions would be good for the local people, it is against much of the evidence. 尽管“殖民扩张对当地人民是有好处的”这一观点看似合理，但它有悖于大量的事实证据。
要点 虽然reasonable的词义很多，但是在阅读中最常见的含义是“合理的”，很少会用fair替代。也常常以副词reasonably的形式出现。
rebellion［ri'beljən］n. 叛乱，反叛
例句 The military had to remain to suppress rebellion and organize government actively. 军队必须在继续镇压叛党的同时，积极组织政府。
rebound［'ri:baund］n. 弹（跳）回；振作；（情绪）波动
例句 The causes of this population rebound are consequences of war and other human actions. 人口反弹是战争和其他人类活动的后果。
reclaim［ri'kleim］v. 收回；开垦（土地）
例句 Reclaimed land was suitable for long-term agricultural development. 开垦的土地适合长期的农业发展。
recruit［ri'kru:t］v. 招募（新兵），征募 n. 新成员
例句 1. Newly raised regiments were normally transferred to another region from whence it was unlikely that recruits would return. 征来的新兵通常被送往其他省份，因此他们不太可能回到原来的地方。
2. The Argentine ants can quickly recruit a huge army from their network of nests. 阿根廷蚂蚁能从其周边巢穴迅速募集到一大批蚁群。
同义 enlist（v. 征募）
reduction［ri'dʌkʃn］n. 减少；下降，降低
例句 All over Europe, the exceptional reduction in the population and the related fall in demand for grain since the beginning of the seventeenth century had caused the price of agricultural products to fall. 在全欧洲，从17世纪开始，因为人口的异常减少，对粮食的需求量也有所下降，从而造成农产品价格的下降。
regiment［'reʤimənt］n. 团；大量 v. 严格地管制
例句 1. Soldiers served in the regiments for many years and after retirement generally stayed at the place they had stationed. 在兵团服役许多年后，退役的士兵大多愿意生活在当初驻扎过的地方。
2. After the earthquake, a whole regiment of volunteers rushed to the disaster-hit areas. 地震发生后，大批志愿者奔赴灾区。
regulate［'regjuleit］v. 管理，控制；调整
例句 1. Because trade was not formally regulated, merchants were careful when they conducted business with people from different countries. 因为没有正式的贸易管理制度，商人们在和其他国家的人开展业务时非常小心。
2. They regulate their temperature by making a variety of internal adjustments. 它们通过各种体内调节来控制体温。
regulation［ˌregju'leiʃn］n. 规章；管理；调整
例句 While trade among merchants relies on regulation to some extent, trade between countries becomes more smooth. 随着商人们在某种程度上依赖贸易规范法，国与国间的贸易顺畅了很多。
reign［rein］n. 统治，支配 v. 占优势；统治
搭配 reign over 统治
例句 1. New recruits in these regiments reached its highest point during the reign of the emperor Hadrian. 在哈德良大帝统治时期，部队的新兵人数达到最高峰。
2. One who wants to reign over the country is usually ambitious. 希望统治整个国家的人通常是雄心勃勃的。
reject［ri'ʤekt］v. 拒绝，抵制；拒收
例句 1. The new idea of integrated ecosystems has been largely rejected by modern ecologists. 现代生态学家们极力否认“综合生态系统”这一新观念。
2. It reflects poetic techniques that were rejected by modern poets. 它反映了现代诗人不再采用的写作技巧。
同义 exclude（v. 抵制）
reliable［ri'laiəbl］a. 可靠的，可信赖的
例句 1. Geologists believe that rock types could someday become reliable time markers. 地质学家们相信，某一天岩石类型会变成可靠的时间标记。
2. The majority of companies are willing to look for employees who are reliable and hard working. 大部分公司愿意雇用勤劳可靠的员工。
同义 dependable, trustworthy（a. 可靠的，可信赖的）
reliance［ri'laiəns］n. 依靠；可依靠的人（或物）；信任
例句 Certain regions which had economic reliance on real estate saw the phenomenon of economy decline in recent years. 在一些依赖房地产为经济支柱的地区，近几年来出现了经济衰退的现象。
同义 dependence（n. 依靠）
relocate［ˌri:'loukeit］v. 重新安置
例句 Because of a great deal of forage required, pastoralists must continually relocate. 由于需要大量的牧草，牧民们必须不断更换放牧的地方。
repression［ri'preʃn］n. 压制，镇压；压抑
例句 While such repression may occur, people easily forget ordinary events from the infant and toddler periods. 当生活中出现一些压抑情绪时，人们就会忘记从婴儿到幼儿时期的平常事。
restoration［ˌrestə'reiʃn］n. 修复；修补（复）；重建（物）
例句 1. Spartina is mainly used for coastal restoration projects and the creation of new wetland sites. 大米草主要用于海岸修复工程和新湿地基地的建造。
2. The common citizens in the country demand a restoration of the right to vote. 这个国家的普通民众要求恢复选举权。
revenue［'revənu:］n.（尤指大宗的）收入；税收
搭配 financial revenue 财政收入
例句 1. Revenue from petroleum was unevenly distributed, causing Middle Eastern societies to be characterized by growing distinctions in wealth and power. 石油收入的分布不均导致中东社会在财富和国力方面的差异越来越大。
2. The tourist attraction does not bring any revenue for the town. 旅游景点没有给城镇带来任何收入。
要点 revenue虽然和income含义相同，但是income主要是指工资等一些相对比较少的收入，而revenue特指大宗的收入。
rigid［'riʤid］a. 严格的；刻板的；刚硬的
例句 A rigid hierarchy in Japanese society is based largely on heredity. 日本社会森严的等级制度很大程度上是以世袭制为基础的。
要点 rigid主要突出的是“刻板、严格”的含义，比如例句中“rigid hierarchy”意译为“森严的等级制度”。
sector［'sektər］n. 部分；防御地段，防区
例句 In addition to dairy farming, a third sector of the Dutch economy reflected the way in which agriculture was being modernized. 除了乳品业，荷兰经济的第三大特点就是农业的现代化方式。
sheer［ʃir］a. 陡峭的；完全的；纯粹的
例句 1. The sheer scale of commercial expansion at sea reflects the immensity of the profits that such East-West trade could create. 大规模的海上商业扩张说明东西方建立贸易关系能够带来巨大收益。
2. During the decade of the 1870s, the sheer number of newspapers doubled. 在19世纪70年代，报纸的绝对数量增长了一倍。
要点 sheer不仅可以表达“完全的，绝对的”，也可以表达“陡峭的”含义，这两种词义都很常见。
shift［ʃift］n./v. 转移；改变
例句 1. The developed countries' economy shifted from heavy industry to health care and education. 发达国家的经济从重工业转向了医疗保健和教育领域。
2. Builders of tunnels were beginning to shift from Europe to the United States. 隧道建造商开始从欧洲转向美国。
同义 transfer（n. 转移）
situation［ˌsiʧu'eiʃn］n. 形势，处境；位置
例句 A great deal of attention is being paid to flood-hit areas, because it is there that the most critical situation exists. 人们的目光都投向了洪灾区，因为目前那里的形势最严峻。
sizable［'saizəbl］a. 相当大的；大小相当的
例句 Research now indicates that sizable areas in central Japan are covered by heavy snow. 调查显示日本中部相当大的地区都被厚厚的积雪覆盖了。
solidarity［ˌsɑ:li'dærəti］n. 团结；一致
例句 Sociologists believe that the cultural patterns that provide social solidarity arise as bridges. 社会学家认为有助于社会团结的文化形态就像桥梁般出现。
sophisticated［sə'fistikeitid］a. 老练的；精密的；复杂的
例句 As a person becomes more sophisticated, its conceptions of handling things may change. 当一个人变得越来越老练时，他/她处理事情的观念也可能发生改变。
同义 worldly-wise（a. 老练的）；complex（a. 复杂的）
派生 sophistication（n. 精密；复杂）
speculation［ˌspekju'leiʃn］n. 推测；思索；投机
例句 In seeking the origins of the tomb, one must rely primarily on speculation, since there is little evidence to explore. 在探索墓穴起源时，最初只能依赖推测，因为现场几乎没有任何线索。
speculative［'spekjələtiv］a. 推理的；思索的；投机的
例句 Early in the nineteenth century, encounters with aboriginal rock art are open to speculative interpretation, but since the late nineteenth century, awareness of the extent and variety of Australian rock art has been growing. 在19世纪早期，人们对澳大利亚土著岩石艺术只有投机性解释，但自19世纪晚期以来，人们对澳大利亚岩石艺术的发展程度和多样性的认识不断增长。
sphere［sfir］n. 球；天体；范围
例句 The new research was projected into new spheres. 这项新研究进入了一个新的领域。
同义 globe（n. 球体）
要点 尽管sphere作为“球体”的含义为我们所熟知，但不要忽略这个单词还有“范围”的意思，而且这一含义也曾在托福阅读文章中出现过。
stable［'steibl］a. 稳定的；沉稳的 n. 马厩；牛棚
例句 The ice on the lake in winter is normally too slight to be stable. 冬天湖面上的冰一般都因为太薄而不稳定。
同义 steady, balanced（a. 稳定的）
stake［steik］n. 股份；赌注；桩 v. 以…打赌；立界标以表明
搭配 at stake 有风险，成败难料；stake out a claim 坚持要求
例句 The early industries controlled most of the international economy, leaving these countries to stake out new areas of specialization. 早期的工业控制了大部分国际经济，使这些国家不得不去开拓新的专业化领域。
steady［'stedi］a. 牢固的；稳定的 v.（使）平稳
例句 Steady hard work, the loyalty of one's fellows, and entrepreneurial skill make all the difference. 努力工作、拥有忠诚的工作伙伴和创业技能，能令一切与众不同。
同义 firm（a. 牢固的）
要点 steady不但可以表示物理层面上的“平稳”，也可以用来描述抽象概念，比如：a steady decline in number“数字稳步下降”。
steep［sti:p］a. 陡峭的；急剧的；过高的 v. 浸泡
例句 1. Inequalities of gender have existed in pastoralist societies, but they seem to have been softened by the absence of steep hierarchies of wealth in most communities. 游牧民族存在性别不平等的情况，但是由于大部分牧区没有严格的财富等级制度，因此这种情况得以缓和。
