例句 What aspect of extinction episodes does the hypothesis supposedly clarify? 这个假设可能阐明灭绝事件的哪些方面？
要点 clarify与identify, explain意思相近，但clarify更偏重于“澄清某一事实”。
classify［'klæsifai］v. 分类；分等
例句 There exists lyrical descriptions of the different types of ware that assist in classifying pots. 人们对不同类型的陶器存在抒情性的描述，这有助于区分不同的罐子。
同义 categorize, sort（v. 分类）
collide［kə'laid］v. 碰撞，互撞；抵触
例句 1. Accidents occur when tankers run into shore reefs or collide with other ships. 事故发生在油轮触礁或与其他船只相撞的时候。
2. What happens when electrons and gas collide in space? 电子和气体在空间中撞击会发生什么？
派生 collision（n. 碰撞；抵触）
要点 collide作“冲突”讲时，与conflict意思相近，有时两者可能会被替换使用，但conflict着重指“矛盾，冲突”。
column［'kɑ:ləm］n. 专栏；圆柱；列
例句 Elements of the same groups were automatically assembled in vertical columns in a periodic table of the elements, when the series of elements was written so as to begin a new horizontal row by each alkali metal. 当一系列的元素根据每行开头的碱金属被放置在同一行的时候，同族元素就会自动排列在元素周期表上垂直的一列中。
commercial［kə'mə:rʃl］a. 商业的；商品化的 n. 商业广告
例句 1. Denmark had an admirable commercial history, particularly with respect to commerce through the Sound. 丹麦有着令人景仰的商业历史，尤其是那些穿越松德海峡开展的商业贸易。
2. The sophistication of the architectural, administrative, commercial, and religious features of the old city indicates the existence of centralized planning and control. 这座古老城市的建筑、行政、商业及宗教特征的复杂性反映了其中央集权式的规划和管理。
commodity［kə'mɑ:dəti］n. 商品；日用品
例句 1. Obsidian must have been recognized as a valuable commodity for many centuries before the great city appeared. 在大城市出现前，黑曜石一定在好几个世纪都被认为是非常有价值的商品。
2. By the 1940's her paintings had become a very precious commodity. 到20世纪40年代，她的绘画已成为非常珍贵的商品。
同义 article（n. 商品）
comparison［kəm'pærisn］n. 比较，对比；比喻
例句 1. This article mainly discussed a comparison of life in different areas in the early twentieth century. 这篇文章主要探讨了20世纪初，不同地区生活的对比。
2. In densely-wooded environments, sound is the best means of communication over distance because in comparison with light, it is seldomly impeded by trees and other vegetation. 在丛林茂密的环境下，声音是最好的远距离交流方式，因为与光相比，声音很少受到树木或其他植被的阻碍。
3. The destruction caused by the volcanic explosion in the northwestern United States pales in comparison to the destruction caused by humans. 与人类引起的破坏相比，美国西北部地区火山爆发所造成的破坏便不值一提了。
要点 comparison表示不同事物的对比，以突显事物间的差异，如：the comparison of butterfly richness in tropical and temperate areas“热带地区和温带地区蝴蝶多样性的对比”。
compelling［kəm'peliŋ］a. 引起兴趣的；必须接受或同意的，强制的
例句 1. In writing, don't limit yourself to a short story when a compelling story requires a longer one. 在写作中，较长的篇幅才能写出一个精彩的故事，因此不要把自己局限于短篇故事当中。
2. There is no compelling reason to believe this hypothesis. 没有令人信服的理由让人相信这一假说。
要点 在托福阅读里，compelling经常出现在词义猜测题型中，与compelling词义相近的词是persuasive“有说服力的，打动人心的”。
compete［kəm'pi:t］v. 竞争；对抗
搭配 compete with 与…竞争；与…对抗
例句 1. There was less cooperation when farmers competed with each other for trade with distant areas. 在远距离贸易中，农民在面对竞争时与他人的合作要少一些。
2. Artists preferred not to paint natural or realistic images because it would have to compete with photographs. 艺术家们不喜欢画自然或现实性的图像，因为这样就要与照片进行竞争。
3. When the ants are removed, the trees usually die, probably because herbivores damage them so much that they are unable to compete with surrounding vegetation for light and growing space. 当蚂蚁被清除掉的时候，树通常也会死去，因为食草动物对它们的破坏太深，导致它们无法与周围的植被争夺阳光和生长空间。
派生 competition（n. 竞争）
competitive［kəm'petətiv］a. 竞争的；求胜心切的；有竞争力
例句 1. It seems likely that natural resources gave the city a competitive edge over its neighbors along with the city elite's ability to recognize their potential. 随着城市精英们意识到这些自然资源的潜能后，他们认为很有可能是自然资源给予了这个城市超越周边城市的竞争优势。
2. It is an exceedingly competitive plant for it can survive in severe environment. 这种植物极具竞争力，可以在恶劣环境中生存。
concentration［ˌkɑ:nsn'treiʃn］n. 浓度；专注；集中
例句 1. Lots of research has been done in an effort to develop salt-tolerant agricultural crops because high concentrations of sodium chloride and other salts limit growth in most plants. 因为高浓度的氯化钠和其他盐分会抑制大部分植物的生长，因此很多研究都致力于提高农作物的耐盐性。
2. Over the past forty years, new discoveries have definitely enriched the body of knowledge, and the most significant data has come from a concentration on three major questions. 在过去的40年里，新的发现无疑丰富了知识体系，而且最重要的数据来自于三个主要问题的结合。
3. The music can help relieve depression and improve concentration. 音乐有助于缓解抑郁，提高注意力。
要点 在科普类的托福阅读文章中，经常会出现high concentration这个词组，意为“高浓度”。
concept［'kɑ:nsept］n. 概念，观念；设想
例句 In the past, it was always seen as a very popular selling concept. 在过去，这往往会被看做是一种十分流行的销售理念。
派生 conception（n. 观念）
conclude［kən'klu:d］v.（使）结束；断定，议定；推断
搭配 conclude from... 从…推断出；conclude...with... 以…来结束…
例句 1. He concluded that teachers also need sufficient resources as well as the cooperation and encouragement of others to make success. 他断定老师们的成功也需要丰富的资源，以及别人的合作和鼓励。
2. Some current analyses conclude that volcanoes and solar activity explained much observed variability in the period from the seventeenth to the early twentieth century, but that they cannot explain the rapid warming of the globe in recent decades. 目前的一些分析推断，火山爆发和太阳活动解释了在17世纪到20世纪早期所观测到的变化，却解释不了近几十年来全球快速升温的原因。
3. Most astronomers conclude that the planets formed at essentially the same time and from the same material as the Sun, according to the nature of the solar system. 根据太阳系的性质，大多数天文学家断定行星实质上与太阳形成于同一时期，而且是由同种物质构成的。
要点 当提到某方面的专家根据试验或某些现象推出某个结论时常会用到conclude这个词，意为“推断，断定”。
conclusion［kən'klu:ʒn］n. 结论；结尾；议定
例句 No conclusion should be made before everything is settled down. 在一切都没有平息之前，不应作出任何决定。
confidence［'kɑ:nfidəns］n. 信心；信任
例句 1. We need to know the variability of climate to interpret with confidence whether recent changes are natural or the result of human activities. 我们需要了解气候的变化，以便能够确切地解释最近的气候变化究竟是自然原因还是人类活动导致的。
2. You could observe a person when he is speaking before a group; his tone can indicate unsureness or confidence. 你可以在一个人当众说话的时候观察他；他的语气能透露他是否自信。
同义 faith, belief（n. 信心）
派生 self-confidence（n. 自信）；overconfident（a. 过于自信的）
consensus［kən'sensəs］n. 共识，一致同意；舆论
例句 1. With the diversity of small-scale local egalitarian or quasi-egalitarian organizations, individuals could interact with one another and govern themselves by shared consensus while minimizing distinctions of wealth and power. 有了各种小规模的地方平均主义或绝对平等组织，人们可以相互影响，并通过达成一些共识来管理自己，这样便最大限度地减少了财富和权力的差别。
2. It seems that we have reached a consensus: the commodity price must be controlled by the end of this month. 看来我们已经达成了共识：必须在这个月末之前稳定物价。
conspicuous［kən'spikjuəs］a. 显眼的；明显的
例句 1. A color or pattern that is relatively blurry may be quite conspicuous in another kind of light. 某种相对比较模糊的颜色或图案在另一种光线下可能会十分显眼。
2. A blond girl in this school is very conspicuous. 一位金发碧眼的女孩在这所学校里是非常显眼的。
contact［'kɑ:ntækt］n./v. 接触；互通信息
例句 1. The meaning of various designs used to decorate Chinese ceramics had been well understood before China had contact with the West. 在中国与西方建立联系之前，各种用于装饰中国陶器的设计的含义已得到充分了解。
2. In small groups we have better chance to initiate contact and establish a good relationship with group members. 在小组中，我们更容易和组员接触并建立良好的关系。
3. He found a great change in the city during the period between his first visit in 1825 and his final contact with the city in 1832. 从1825年第一次参观这座城市到1832年最后一次来到这里，他发现在此期间这座城市发生了翻天覆地的变化。
要点 在托福阅读中会用到have contact with这个短语，表示“和…保持联系”，这个短语既可以用来指人与人之间的联系，也可以指事物间的抽象联系。
cope［koup］v.（成功地）应付，（妥善地）处理
搭配 cope with 处理，应付
例句 1. He thought that they might use these principles to help themselves cope with problems when doing the experiment. 他认为他们可能会用这些法则来帮助处理实验中遇到的问题。
2. Support and encouragement were necessary to cope with aspects of their professional life with which they were not comfortable. 在应对职业生涯中的不如意时，支持和鼓励是必要的。
3. As some scientists believe, dinosaurs were warm-blooded and too incompetent to cope with the environment. 就像一些科学家认为的一样，恐龙是热血动物，而且太过无能，根本无法适应环境。
courtship［'kɔ:rʧip］n. 求爱，追求；求爱期，追求期
例句 1. The male riflebird exploits some modes of signaling in his courtship display. 公风鸟求偶的时候会利用一些信号模式。
2. During courtship and aggressive displays, the turkey enlarges its colored neck collar and then flings about the colored signaling apparatus. 在求偶和争斗期间，火鸡颈部彩色的羽毛会蓬起来，不停地抖动。
credible［'kredəbl］a. 可信的，可靠的
例句 The researcher found children believe that the characters who advertise breakfast cereals are knowledgeable about cereals, and children accept such characters as credible people of nutritional information. 研究人员发现，儿童相信为谷物早餐做广告的人很了解谷物，而且他们认为这些人是提供营养信息的可靠人选。
要点 托福阅读考试中还会考到credible表示“可信的，可靠的”的近义词，如believable。
debate［di'beit］n./v. 辩论；讨论，争论
例句 There is much debate concerning whether Mars had water. 关于火星上是否有水这个话题，人们争论不休。
同义 argue（n./v. 辩论）；discuss, dispute（n./v. 讨论，争论）
delay［di'lei］n./v. 耽搁，延迟
搭配 time delay 延时
例句 1. The government's decision to adopt delaying statics was condemned by the public. 政府决定采取拖延战术，这受到了公众的谴责。
2. The measures should be taken immediately without delay. 必须立即采取措施，不得延误。
同义 postpone（v. 耽搁，延迟）
deliberate［di'libərət］a. 审慎的；蓄意的；深思熟虑的［di'libəreit］v. 商讨
例句 It seems reasonable that this feat was achieved by deliberate colonization expeditions that set out fully stocked with food, domesticated plants and animals. 通过精心策划的殖民探险在出发时满载着食物、种植的植物和家畜，因此他们能取得丰功伟绩似乎在情理之中。
要点 deliberate在托福阅读中通常用它的形容词词义，相当于careful或者cogitative。
depart［di'pɑ:rt］v. 离开；背离
例句 Some musicians consciously depart from strict meter to create a relaxed sense of phrasing. 一些音乐家有意摆脱严格的韵律，试图创造一种轻松的编曲方式。
同义 leave, exit（v. 离开）
dependence［di'pendəns］n. 依靠，依赖；信任
例句 1. The automatic, metabolic system may have more dependence on air exchanges. 自动生成的代谢系统可能会更加依赖空气的交流。
2. The mobility of pastoralist societies reflects their dependence on animal-based foods. 游牧民族的移动性反映了他们对动物性食物的依赖。
派生 dependent（a. 依靠的，依赖的）
depression［di'preʃn］n. 忧愁；洼地；低气压；不景气
例句 Southern people obtained water by collecting and storing rainwater in sealed depressions. 南方人通过在封闭的洼地里蓄积雨水来获得水源。
要点 depression平时多用作“不景气，萧条；沮丧”等词义，但在托福阅读中也出现过这个单词作为“洼地”的用法。
deprive［di'praiv］v. 使失去，剥夺
搭配 deprive of 剥夺，失去
例句 1. They have the same length as the daily activity cycles of animals that are not deprived of the influence of external environment. 他们与动物的日常活动周期相同，都受外部环境的影响。
2. When deprived of water, this kind of flower will die soon. 这种花如果缺水，很快就会死去。
description［di'skripʃn］n. 描写，形容；种类；性质
例句 Maturation of the frontal lobes of the brain is important for the long-term memory of motor activities but it doesn't work for verbal descriptions. 大脑额叶的发育成熟对肌动活动的长期记忆很重要，但对言语表达不起作用。
desirable［di'zaiərəbl］a. 值得想望的；值得拥有的；有利的
例句 1. The more sophisticated societies became, the better they could influence desirable occurrences through ritualized theater. 社会变得越是复杂，越是能通过仪式化的剧场表演影响着事件向所愿的方向发展。
2. Streams flowed where nature intended them to and water-driven factories had to be built on the river banks whether or not the location was desirable for other reasons. 溪流所经之处由大自然而定，因此无论这个选址是否可取，水力工厂都必须建在河岸上。
diameter［dai'æmitər］n. 直径
例句 1. The negatively charged region is several hundred meters thick and several kilometers in diameter. 带负电的区域有几百米厚，直径有几千米。
2. The channel is only a few centimeters in diameter, but it is wide enough for electrons to follow the channel to the ground. 这条通道的直径虽然仅有几公分，但它足以让电子通过通道到达地面。
3. According to this hypothesis, Earth may collide with an asteroid with an estimated diameter of 10 kilometers. 根据这个假说，地球可能会与直径估计是10千米的小行星相撞。
disclaimer［dis'kleimər］n. 免责声明；否认，拒绝
例句 They are asked to sign a disclaimer acknowledging the promising dangers of the activity. 他们被要求签署一份免责声明，承认他们知晓这一活动的潜在风险。
discover［di'skʌvər］v. 发现；发觉
例句 1. Before he discovered that the element was contained in natural gas on Earth, Ramsay found evidence of helium in the spectrum of sunlight. 在发现地球上的天然气含有氦元素之前，拉姆塞在太阳光谱中就发现了氦的迹象。
2. The biologist who lived longtime in the Pacific Northwest discovered areas where deer had an increase in suitable browse. 那位长期居住在太平洋西北部的生物学家发现，在有适合的牧草的地区，鹿的数量有所增加。
disoriented［dis'ɔ:rientid］a. 分不清方向或目标的；无判断力的
例句 1. He hypothesized that birds orient themselves according to the Sun's position as caged birds become disoriented when the sky is overcast. 他认为鸟类是根据太阳的位置来定位的，因为阴云密布的时候笼中的鸟无法分清方向。
2. The birds were disoriented and had trouble locating their food box on overcast days. 阴天，鸟类会失去方向感，在找到它们的食盒时也有困难。
要点 disoriented是disorient的过去分词，在托福阅读中比较常用，而动词disorient是“使失去方向感”的含义。
distribute［di'stribju:t］v. 分配；分类；分区
例句 The wind helps the flowers distribute their seeds and enables birds to find more food. 风不仅能帮助花儿传播种子，而且也让鸟儿有了更多的食物。
同义 scatter, spread（v. 散布）
disturbance［di'stə:rbəns］n. 打扰；骚动；心神不安
例句 1. They calmed down quickly after disturbances. 骚动之后，他们很快就恢复了平静。
2. In the early twentieth century, the American ecologist pointed out that plant communities would develop after a disturbance such as volcanic eruption, heavy flood, or forest fire. 在20世纪早期，美国生态学家指出在诸如火山喷发、洪灾或森林火灾之类的干扰发生之后，植物群落会得以发展。
3. Stability can be defined as the speed at which an ecosystem returns to a particular form following a major disturbance. 稳定性可定义为当一个生态系统经历巨大骚乱后，恢复到特定形式的速度。
同义 interference（n. 打扰）；stir（n. 骚动）
divide［di'vaid］v. 分，分隔；分配 n. 分开；界限
搭配 divide into 把…分成；digital divide 数字鸿沟；divide the work 分工；divide by 除以，用…除；divide up 瓜分；分割；分配
例句 The substances that make up two groups of planets are divided into three groups: gases, rocks, and ices based on their melting points. 组成这两组行星的物质根据它们的熔点被划分成为三种：分别是气体、岩石和冰。
division［di'viʒn］n. 除；分配；部门
例句 1. The international division of labor was well-suited to the development of some countries, that is a key factor in their success. 国际劳动分工很适合一些国家的发展，这也是这些国家获得成功的一个关键因素。
2. All meteorites are assigned to three broad divisions on the basis of two kinds of material. 基于两种材料，所有的陨星一共被划分为三大类。
同义 partition（n. 划分）
drill［dril］v. 钻（孔），打眼；训练
例句 1. Wells are drilled into the ground, when an oil pool or field has been discovered. 当油池或油塘被发现时，石油钻井会被打入地下。
2. The first oil well was drilled by the retired railroad conductor — E. L. Drake. 第一口油井是由E·L·德雷克钻的，他是一名退休铁路列车长。
同义 bore（v. 打眼）；practice（v. 训练）
due［du:］a. 到期的；应给的；应支付的
搭配 due to 由于；due date 到期日，支付日
例句 1. Both the north and the south areas were lack of surface water probably due to the fact that most of it was used up for agricultural purposes. 南部和北部地区都缺乏地表水，很可能是因为大部分的地表水都被用于农业了。
2. The changes of lake level must be due to the net difference between what seeps into the lake from the groundwater and what leaks into the groundwater. 湖面水位的改变一定是因为流入湖的地下水和渗透到地下水中的湖水之间存在净差。
3. It becomes possible to judge whether a lake's flow is mainly due to its surface inputs and outputs or to its underground inputs and outputs, once all this information has been gathered. 一旦信息收集齐全，就可以判断湖水的流量主要取决于地表水的输入和输出，还是地下水的输入和输出。
