predator［'predətər］n. 捕食性动物；食肉动物；掠夺者
例句 1. Songbird species that are vulnerable to predators have evolved ways of reducing the dangers of being found and caught. 特别容易受到捕食者攻击的鸣鸟已经进化出能够降低危险的方法，使它们不会被找到并捕获。
2. Some birds elevate their nests in higher branches maybe in order to avoid predators that are not able to climb trees. 一些鸟把窝建到更高处的树枝上，这可能是为了躲避那些不会爬树的掠食者。
同义 carnivore（n. 食肉动物）
progression［prə'greʃn］n. 前进，进程；连续
例句 Like the scientist explained in the seminar, the fossil formations showed that evolution may be a slow progression. 如同科学家在研讨会上解释的那样，化石的形成表明进化或许是一个缓慢的过程。
同义 series（n. 连续）
promote［prə'mout］v. 促进；提升；宣传
例句 1. In this case, sedimentation was promoted by higher temperatures and pressures, which is responsible for the formation of petroleum. 在这个例子中，高温高压促成的沉淀是石油形成的原因。
2. In the early decades of the foundation of the United States, the agrarian movement promoted the farmer as society's hero. 在美国建国之初的几十年间，农业运动把农民宣扬为社会的英雄。
同义 boost, advance（v. 促进）
要点 promote通常指“促进商业销售”，而在托福阅读中，promote经常与化石或沉淀物质的形成搭配，如：promote fossilization“促进石化过程”。
propagate［'prɑ:pəgeit］v. 繁殖；传播；宣传
例句 1. These plants propagate through producing spores, but the spores carry no supply of nutrients and are unprotected, lacking an outer coating. 这些植物通过产生小型孢子来进行传播，但这些孢子不含有任何营养物质，也缺少外层的保护。
2. Some tropical plants are able to be propagated from seeds only. 一些热带植物只能通过种子来进行繁殖。
同义 reproduce（v. 繁殖）
protective［prə'tektiv］a. 保护的，防护的
搭配 protective price 保护价格
例句 1. Protective barriers have to be built to protect seawater from flooding this area. 必须修建防护屏障以防止海水在这一地区泛滥。
2. Coconuts are able to establish themselves in distant locations thus their seeds can maintain hard, protective coats. 椰子可以在偏远的地方生长，这样它们的种子就能保留坚硬而具有保护作用的外层。
quantity［'kwɑ:ntəti］n. 量，数量
例句 The photo evidence suggests that liquid water ever existed on the surface of Mars in great quantity. 这些图像证据表明，液体的水曾经大量存在于火星表面。
相关 quality（n. 质量）
quartz［kwɔ:rts］n. 石英
搭配 quartz grey 石英灰
例句 The intense heat would impact the production of heat-shocked quartz in many types of rock. 强热可能会影响多种不同岩石中热休克石英的产生。
rainfall［'reinfɔ:l］n. 降雨；降雨量
搭配 rainfall season 雨季
例句 Rainfall is not completely lacking in desert areas; it is just highly changeable. 降水在沙漠地区并不是完全缺乏，只是非常多变。
rarity［'rerəti］n. 罕见，稀有；稀薄
例句 The difficulty of finding relationships that benefit one species without affecting the other causes the rarity of commensal relationships. 由于很难找到一种关系可以使一个物种获益的同时不影响另一个物种，因此共生关系是十分罕见的。
同义 treasure（n. 罕见）
recharge［ˌri:'ʧɑ:rʤ］n./v. 再充电；再装填
搭配 recharge batteries 为电池充电
例句 1. In the desert, most of the water is contained in shallow aquifers which can be rapidly recharged. 沙漠中大部分的水包含在较浅的含水土层中，这些含水土层可以迅速地被再次填满。
2. The unprecedented development of a finite groundwater resource with an almost negligible natural recharge rate has caused water tables in the region to fall drastically. 史无前例地开发有限的地下水资源伴随着微不足道的自然回灌率导致这个地区的地下水位剧烈下降。
要点 recharge虽然多表示“充电”，但在托福阅读中则经常表示“地下水等资源的再储存”，比如：the recharge rate of aquifer。
refill［ˌri:'fil］v. 再装满，再充满
例句 When the basin was refilled, the normal marine organisms returned. 当海盆被再次填满的时候，一般的海洋生物就会返回。
regularity［ˌregju'lærəti］n. 规律性，规则性；整齐
搭配 regularity assumption 规律性假定
例句 The stones of Roman wall were bonded together by both the regularity of the design and the peculiarly powerful Roman cement. 罗马城墙上的石头被有规律的设计和极其强力的罗马水泥粘合在一起。
remediation［riˌmi:di'eiʃn］n. 补救；整治；修复
搭配 remediation goal 修复目标
例句 After the cultivation and harvest these years, the site would be restored at a much lower cost than the price of excavation, reburial, and the standard practice for the remediation of contaminated soils. 经过这些年的耕耘与收获，这个地方将被重建，并且重建的价格低于挖掘、再掩埋，以及标准的污染土壤治理的价格。
renewal［ri'nu:əl］n. 更新；复兴；补充
例句 The slowing down of water renewal results in a chain of further consequences: it lets dissolved chemicals to become increasingly concentrated, and this, in turn, has a bad effect on all living things in the lake. 水的补充速度放缓导致了一系列的后果：使溶解的化学品含量变得更浓，而这反过来也会对湖中所有的生物产生不良影响。
同义 recovery（n. 恢复）
reptile［'reptail］n. 爬行动物，爬虫类；卑鄙的人
例句 Many amphibians species and reptiles could change their color patterns to camouflage themselves. 许多两栖动物和爬行动物可以通过改变自身的颜色来伪装自己。
reptilian［rep'tiliən］a. 爬虫类的；卑下的
搭配 reptilian creature 爬行生物
例句 The leatherback has an insulating layer which can be considered as the reptilian version of blubber. 棱皮龟的绝缘层可以被看做爬行动物的鲸脂。
resilience［ri'ziliəns］n. 弹力；适应性；（指人）乐观的性情
搭配 ecosystem resilience 生态系统复原性
例句 A plant community's long-term stability results from its level of resilience. 植物群落长期的稳定性源自其适应性的程度。
resilient［ri'ziliənt］a. 有弹性的；适应力强的
例句 They are the most resilient communities for they are changing over time. 因为它们一直以来总是在改变，所以它们是适应力最强的群体。
resistant［ri'zistənt］a. 抵抗的，有抵抗力的；抗…的
搭配 drought-resistant crops 抗旱作物；be resistant to 对…有抵抗力；acid-resistant 抗酸的
例句 1. Those minerals that are resistant to melting are the main elements in the solar nebula. 那些不会融化的矿物是构成太阳星云的主要元素。
2. Genetic engineering might provide a partial solution by going on to develop new strains of drought-resistant crops. 通过继续研究新的抗旱作物品种，基因工程会提供一个片面的解决方法。
3. Scientists found a phenomenon that a lot of damaging insects were resistant to pesticide. 科学家们发现一个现象，许多害虫对杀虫剂具有抵抗力。
retreat［ri'tri:t］v. 退却；向后退 n. 撤退；退隐处
搭配 mountain retreat 山间隐居所
例句 Facing this situation, the tribe and its leader had to abandon their lands, retreating to Canada. 面对这样的情况，该部落及其首领不得不放弃他们的土地，撤退到加拿大。
同义 withdrew（v. 撤退）
rhythm［'riðəm］n. 节奏，韵律
搭配 heart rhythm 心率
例句 The timing and rhythms of biological functions must closely match the periodic events such as the solar day, the tides, the lunar cycle, and the seasons. 生物功能的时机和节奏必须与周期性事件密切匹配，比如太阳日、潮汐、月运周期，以及季节交替这样的事件。
rival［'raivl］v. 与…相匹敌；竞争 n. 对手
例句 1. On one hand, coal gas rivaled smoky oil lamps and flickering candles, on the other hand, early in the new century, well-to-do Londoners grew accustomed to gaslit houses and even streets. 一方面，煤气可以与烟雾缭绕的油灯和光亮微弱的蜡烛竞争；另一方面，在新世纪初期，富裕的伦敦人开始习惯于用煤气灯照明的房屋甚至是街道。
2. Several factors might account for the extraordinary development of this place, involving its location, rich natural resources, irrigation potential, intelligent elites, and the misfortune of the rival communities. 一些因素也许可以解释这个地方的大力发展，包括其地理位置、丰富的自然资源、灌溉潜力、聪明的精英以及与之竞争的群体的不幸。
同义 comparative（n. 竞争对手）
rolling［'rouliŋ］a. 起伏的；周而复始的
搭配 rolling hills 绵延起伏的群山
例句 What initially surprised us is that many of their cities were not built next to the rivers but on high terrain in rolling uplands. 最初让我们惊讶的地方在于他们的许多城市不是建在河边，而是在绵延起伏的高地之上。
runoff［'rʌnɔf］n. 决赛；径流；流走的东西
搭配 urban runoff 城市径流
例句 1. Two types of flow features were seen: those are runoff channels and outflow channels. 一共可以看到两种流动特征：那就是径流渠道和流出渠道。
2. These scenarios start with planting certain species of plants to treat the pond contaminated by runoff. 这些方案从种植特定的植物开始，以处理被径流污染过的池塘。
salinity［sə'linəti］n. 盐分；盐度；海水的高含盐量
搭配 absolute salinity 绝对盐度
例句 Evaporation causes the increase of salinity and results in the scarcity of freshwater. 蒸发导致盐度上升，进而造成了淡水的缺乏。
sap［sæp］n. 树液，汁液；元气
例句 Spartina is particularly tolerant of high salinities for its salt glands on the surface of leaves can remove the salt from the plant sap. 大米草科植物特别能够忍耐高盐度，因为其树叶表面的盐腺可以去除植物液汁中的盐分。
同义 fluid（n. 汁液）
要点 在托福阅读文章中，植物的汁液通常都用sap表示，但sap也可以表示“元气”。
saturate［'sæʧəreit］v. 使湿透；使饱和
搭配 saturated zone 饱和带
例句 1. The total volume of water in the saturated sample must be looked as consisting of water that can, or cannot, drain away. 饱和样本的全部含水量必须被看作含有能排尽的和不能排尽的水。
2. The ocean can saturate the atmosphere with water. 海洋可以使大气层充满水分。
scarce［skers］a. 缺乏的；稀有的，罕见的
例句 1. These scarce natural resources are now located in the Guatemalan and Mexican highlands. 如今，这些稀有的自然资源位于危地马拉和墨西哥的高地地区。
2. Watches and clocks were scarce in the United States and people didn't have chance to own them until the late 1850s. 以前钟表在美国是很少见的，直到19世纪50年代末期，人们才有机会拥有钟表。
要点 scarce在托福阅读文章中主要表示“稀有的”这一含义，而scarce的副词形式scarcely意为“几乎不”，表达否定含义。
scatter［'skætər］v. 分散，驱散；撒播
例句 During the midnight on February 8, 1969, a large, bright meteor entered Earth's atmosphere and broke into thousands of pieces, plummeted to the ground and scattered. 1969年2月8日午夜，一颗巨大而明亮的流星进入了地球大气层，碎成了千万个碎片后散落到地上。
同义 disperse（v. 分散）
要点 scatter最常用含义是“分散”，此外，disperse也可以替代scatter，表示同样的意思。
scavenger［'skævinʤər］n. 清道夫；捡破烂的人；食腐动物
例句 After an organism died, the soft tissue is ordinarily consumed by scavengers and bacteria. 当生物死亡以后，其软组织通常会被食腐动物和细菌所消耗。
seafloor［'si:flɔ:r］n. 海底
搭配 seafloor trench 海沟
例句 He is the first scientist who discovered the existence of domelike masses underneath the seafloor. 他是首位在海底发现弯顶状沉积物的科学家。
sediment［'sedimənt］n. 沉淀物；沉积物
例句 This plant species has the functions both as a stabilizer and a sediment trap, and as a nursery area for the estuarine fish and shellfish. 这类植物的功能既像一个稳定装置及沉积物收集器，又像一个可以让河口的鱼和贝类生存的养殖地。
同义 deposit（n. 沉积物）
派生 sedimentation（n. 沉淀）
要点 在阅读文章中不仅会用sediment来表示“沉淀物”的含义，也经常会用deposit来表达。
sedimentary［ˌsedi'mentri］a. 沉积的；沉淀性的
例句 1. Even though most fossils are found in marine sedimentary rocks, they are also found in terrestrial deposits left by streams and lakes. 即使大部分的化石都是在大海的沉积岩中被发现，但是在溪水和湖泊留下的陆上沉积物中也可以发现它们。
2. Stratigraphy is the study of the strata in sedimentary rock. 地层学就是针对沉积岩中地层的研究。
同义 precipitable（a. 沉淀性的）
seed［si:d］n. 种子
搭配 sunflower seed 葵花籽
例句 The seed has an outer coating which is surrounded by the genetic material of the new plant, and inside this covering, concentrated nutrients are offered. 种子的外层被这种新植物的遗传物质所包围，而包围层的内部提供了浓缩营养。
seep［si:p］v. 漏出，渗漏
例句 Water does not keep steady all the time but can seep out of the lake or flow into bigger rivers. 水不会一直保持稳定，而是会从湖中渗出，或者流入更大的河流之中。
同义 leak（v. 渗漏）
seepage［'si:piʤ］n. 渗流；渗漏；渗液
搭配 seepage spring 渗出泉
例句 By simple observation of the different seasons, it is possible to decide whether a lake is surface water dominated or seepage dominated. 仅仅通过对不同季节的观察，就有可能确定一个湖泊的湖水主要来自地表水还是渗透水。
selection［si'lekʃn］n. 挑选；精选；被挑选出来的人（或物）
例句 Sometimes, it is possible to watch the effects of natural selection in the host-parasite relationships. 有时候，通过寄主与寄生者的关系，就能看到自然选择的作用。
同义 choice（n. 选择）
semiarid［ˌsemi'ærid］a. 半干旱的
搭配 semiarid climate 半干旱气候
例句 Generally speaking, grass is the dominant type of natural vegetation in the semiarid lands. 一般来说，草类是半干旱地区的主要自然植被种类。
shape［ ʃeip］v. 使成为…形状；塑造 n. 形状；健康
搭配 in shape 体格健壮；处于良好状态
例句 Approximately 3 billion years ago, flooding shaped the outflow channels, about the same times, the northern volcanic plains formed. 将近30亿年前，洪水的冲击形成了泄水渠，而北部的火山平原也大约在同一时期形成。
shelf［ ʃelf］n. 架子；搁板
搭配 on the shelf 被搁置；continental shelf 大陆架；goods shelf 货架
例句 Now, research indicates that parts of the inner continental shelf which remained covered with ice were colonized by a variety of early human groups. 如今，研究表明，一部分仍然被冰覆盖的内陆大陆架曾经被各种早期人类群体所占有。
shoot［ ʃu:t］v. 发射；拍摄；发芽 n. 嫩芽；射击
搭配 short shoot 短茎
例句 Perhaps the most important environmental factor is temperature, because if the growing season is too short and temperatures are too low, tree shoots and buds cannot mature sufficiently to survive the winter months. 最重要的环境因素或许是温度，因为如果树的嫩枝和嫩芽的生长期太短，而气温又太低的话，它们就无法发育完全并活过冬季的几个月。
要点 shoot作为“射击”的含义很常见，但在托福阅读中，常考查的是“芽”这个含义。
shrub［ ʃrʌb］n. 灌木（丛）
搭配 shrub zone 灌木带
例句 Within just a few meters, trees were replaced by low shrubs, herbs, and grasses. 仅仅是在几米之间，树木就被低矮的灌木、草本植物和草所替代了。
silt［silt］n. 淤泥 v. 使淤塞
例句 For centuries, the annual floods of the Nile, Tigris, and Euphrates have brought silts and a great volume of water to the inhabitants of the lower valleys. 几个世纪以来，尼罗河、底格里斯河和幼发拉底河每年最大的洪流给附近低地的居民带来了泥沙和大量的水。
同义 sullage（n. 淤泥）
slope［sloup］n. 斜坡；倾斜 v.（使）倾斜
搭配 fan-shaped slope 扇形的斜坡
例句 The transition from forest to treeless tundra on the mountain slope is quite dramatic. 在这座山的斜坡上，森林到无树苔原的转变非常具有戏剧性。
同义 inclination（n. 斜坡）
span［spæn］n. 跨度；一段时间 v. 跨越；持续
搭配 life span 寿命
例句 A search about sedimentary deposits which span between the Cretaceous and Tertiary periods boundary shows that there is a momentary increase in the amount of iridium. 一项针对白垩纪到第三纪沉积物质的研究表明，铱元素的含量出现了短暂的增长。
要点 span除了可以表示一段时间的跨度，也可以表示跨越空间的范围。比如：The Erie Canal is an enormous project in its day, spanning about 350 miles.
species［'spi:ʃi:z］n. 种类；类群
搭配 the origin of species 物种起源
例句 Researchers are finding methods to save endangered species such as the giant pandas, cheetahs, and tigers. 研究人员在寻找方法以拯救大熊猫、印度豹及老虎等濒危物种。
同义 group（n. 类群）
派生 subspecies（n. 亚种）
同类 与生物有关的词：paleontologist 古生物学家；genetic 基因的；offspring 后代；hatch 孵化
spectrum［'spektrəm］n. 光谱，频谱；范围
例句 In the spectrum of sunlight, he found evidence of helium before his discovery about the element was also contained in natural gas deposits on Earth. 在发现氦元素包含于地球存储的天然气之前，他就已在太阳光谱中发现了氦存在的证据。
同义 range（n. 范围）
spherical［'sferikl］a. 球形的；天体的
搭配 spherical space 球面空间
例句 1. When constituents of the interstellar cloud of gas and dust got trapped inside small, roughly spherical objects and then these objects became together in a dark gray matrix, the meteorite was formed. 当星际气体和尘埃云被捕获到小而粗糙的球形物体中时，这些球形物体会在暗灰基质中结合在一起，这样就形成了陨石。
2. The Greeks realized their discovery could be true only when the Earth was spherical. 希腊人意识到，只有当地球是个球体时，他们的发现才有可能是真的。
同类 描述其他形状：square 正方形的；rectangular 矩形的；rounded 圆形的；circular 圆形的；oval 椭圆形的；cubic 立方体的。
spore［spɔ:r］n. 孢子
搭配 terminal spore 终端芽孢
例句 Lichens helped the growth of spore-producing plants such as ferns and mosses by providing favorable conditions. 地衣类植物通过提供适宜的条件来帮助蕨类和苔藓这样的孢子植物生长。
stabilize［'steibəlaiz］v. 稳定，稳固
例句 1. All of the following consequences showed the natural selection stabilized the rabbit population. 随之而来的一切结果都表明自然选择的作用稳定了兔子的数量。
2. Thus, natural selection stabilized this host-parasite relationship. 这样，自然选择稳定了这种寄主与寄生者之间的关系。
static［'stætik］a. 静态的；静电的；呆板的 n. 静电
搭配 static electricity 静电
例句 In the meantime, this ice is not static for the glaciers move slowly across the land with tremendous energy, carving into even the hardest rock formations and thereby reshaping the landscape. 同时，冰也不是静止的，因为冰川会带着很大的能量缓慢地移过陆地，甚至插入最坚实的岩石层中，导致景观重新形成。
同义 stationary（a. 静止的）
stem［stem］n. 茎，干 v. 阻止；起源
搭配 stem from 源于
例句 It is an automatic, metabolic system with the control center in the brain stem. 这是一个自动的新陈代谢系统，其控制中心位于脑干。
同义 trunk（n. 树干）
stony［'stouni］a. 石头的；多石的；冷酷的
搭配 stony land 石质地
例句 Sometimes, the loose soil is completely blown away, leaving a stony surface. 有时候，松散土壤会完全被吹走，留下光滑的石头表面。
stretch［streʧ］v. 延伸，拉长 n. 一段时间；延伸
