1. This is described in D. T. Whiteside, ed., General Introduction to Volume 20, The Mathematical Papers of Isaac Newton (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1968), pp. xi–xii.
2. Ibid., Volume 2, footnote, pp. 206–7; and Volume 3, pp. 6–7.
3. See, for example, Richard S. Westfall, Never at Rest—A Biography of Isaac Newton (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1980), Chapter 14.
4. Peter Galison, How Experiments End (University of Chicago Press, Chicago, Ill., 1987)。
5. Quoted in Westfall, Never at Rest, p. 143.
6. Quoted in Dictionary of Scientific Biography, ed. Charles Coulston Gillespie (Scribner, New York, 1970), Volume 6, p. 485.
7. Quoted in James Gleick, Isaac Newton (Pantheon, New York, 2003), p. 120.
8. Quotations from I. Bernard Cohen and Anne Whitman, trans., Isaac Newton—The Principia, 3rd ed. (University of California Press, Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1999)。 Before this version, the standard translation was The Principia—Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy (University of California Press, Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1962), trans. Florian Cajori (1792), rev. trans. Andrew Motte.
9. G. E. Smith, “Newton’s Study of Fluid Mechanics,” International Journal of Engineering Science 36, 1377 (1998)。
10. Modern astronomical data in this chapter are from C. W. Allen, Astrophysical Quantities, 2nd ed. (Athlone, London, 1963)。
11. The standard work on the history of the measurement of the size of the solar system is Albert van Helden, Measuring the Universe— Cosmic Dimensions from Aristarchus to Halley (University of Chicago Press, Chicago, Ill., 1985)。
12. See Robert P. Crease, World in the Balance—The Historic Quest for an Absolute System of Measurement (W. W. Norton, New York, 2011)。
13. See J. Z. Buchwald and M. Feingold, Newton and the Origin of Civilization (Princeton University Press, Princeton, N.J., 2014)。
14. See S. Chandrasekhar, Newton’s Principia for the common Reader (Clarendon, Oxford, 1995), pp. 472–76; Westfall, Never at Rest, pp. 736–39.
15. R. S. Westfall, “Newton and the Fudge Factor,” Science 179, 751 (1973)。
16. See G. E. Smith, “How Newton’s Principia Changed Physics,” in Interpreting Newton: Critical Essays, ed. A. Janiak and E. Schliesser (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2012), pp. 360–95.
17. Voltaire, Philosophical Letters, trans. E. Dilworth (Bobbs-Merrill Educational Publishing, Indianapolis, Ind., 1961), p. 61.
18. The opposition to Newtonianism is described in articles by A. B. Hall, E. A. Fellmann, and P. Casini in “Newton’s Principia: A Discussion Organized and Edited by D. G. King-Hele and A. R. Hall,” Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 42, 1 (1988)。
19. Christiaan Huygens, Discours de la Cause de la Pesanteur (1690), trans. Karen Bailey, with annotations by Karen Bailey and G. E. Smith, available from Smith at Tufts University (1997)。
20. Shapin has argued that this conflict even had political implications: Steven Shapin, “Of Gods and Kings: Natural Philosophy and Politics in the Leibniz-Clarke Disputes,” Isis 72, 187 (1981)。
21. S. Weinberg, Gravitation and Cosmology (Wiley, New York, 1972), Chapter 15.
22. G. E. Smith, to be published.
23. Quoted in A Random Walk in Science, ed. R. L. Weber and E. Mendoza (Taylor and Francis, London, 2000)。
24. Robert K. Merton, “Motive Forces of the New Science,” Osiris 4, Part 2 (1938); reprinted in Science, Technology, and Society in Seventeenth-Century England (Howard Fertig, New York, 1970), and in On Social Structure and Science, ed. Piotry Sztompka (University of Chicago Press, Chicago, Ill., 1996), pp. 223–40.