farmland． When solid， lava is agood building material． And in Italy， steam from active volcanoes
supplies heat and power to surrounding areas．
Topic Sentence：____________________________________________
Details：1．_______________________________________________
2．_______________________________________________
3．_______________________________________________
4．_______________________________________________
（4）
The Women’s Movement has had several effects on the English language． It has created Ms， a title for women comparable to
the title Mr． for men． The creator of the new title
objected to the title Miss and Mrs． once given to women because these titles violated a woman's privacy
by indicating her marital status． The use of Ms．now permits women to enjoy the same privacy that men have enjoyed
with the use of Mr． Second， the Movement has changed the ending of many compound words from-man
to-person．For instance， the word “chairman” has been replaced in many
organization with the word “chairperson”， and the word“salesman”has become salesperson． Feminists insist that the substitution of-person for-man makes the
position more suitable for members of either sex． Third， the Movement
is responsible for new terms．One example is male chauvinist pig， a term applied to a man who refuses to recognize the equality of
women． Another example
is female chauvinist sow， a phrase used to describe a female who believes that she is
superior to males． The most
profound effect the Movementhas had on the language is on the third person
singular pronoun．Thirty years
ago most English instructors forced their students to se he， him， and his for the third person singular when the sex of the person
was not known． Thus， students were taught to say，“Everyone has his books”．Today many English teachers permit
students to follow the feminist lead and use the masculine and feminine
pronouns together． Therefore， constructions such as his or her
books are common． Although the
Women's Movement may not have yet achieved all of its goals， it has made a mark on the English
language．
Topic Sentence：___________________________________________
Details：1．______________________________________________
2．______________________________________________
3．______________________________________________
4．______________________________________________
第五单元如何写结论句
5．1结论句
第一单元曾提到，段落由三个部分组成，最后一部分就是结论句（ the
concluding sentence）。结论句通常与主题句一样包含有段落的中心思想，然而所用措辞与主题句不同。
在示范段落 1-1，主题句是： We all know that cigarette
smoking is a dangerous habit because it causes health problems．
结论句是： It is clearly identified as
one of the chief causes of death in our society．
5．2关于写结论句的建议
1）把握主题句的关键词
例如在关于“cigarette smoking”的示范段落 1-1中，中心思想是“the health problems caused
by cigarette smoking，关键词是“health problems”。
2）总结细节，回答主题句中隐含的问题。
在上述示范段落中，隐含的问题是“What are the health
problems caused by cigarette smoking？”结论句作出的回答是 It is identified as one of the chief cause of death in our society．
3）用不同的措辞表达同一中心思想。
在上述段落中，主题句的关键词是“health problems”，而在结论句中，关键词是“causes of death”。
示范段落5-1
Our neighborhood has been greatly changed． When I last visited there， about half the homes had been torn
down to make way for a superhighway． The remaining buildings were plastered with billboards and
surrounded by traffic signs and litter． Now the whole neighborhood has become dirty， noisy and full of cars．
5．3示范段落分析
主题句： Our neighborhood has been
changed．
主题句关键词： changed
主题句隐含的问题：“How has the neighborhood
changed？
细节： 1． a superhighway built—noisy and full of cars
2． full of
billboards， traffic
signs and litter—dirty
结论句： Now the whole neighborhood has
become dirty， noisy
andfull of cars．
结论句关键词： dirty，noisy and full of cars
结论句总结了细节并回答了主题句提出的问题。
Exercise 5-1
Directions：Read the following paragraph．Find out the topic sentence and the concluding sentence， and rearrange the details so that
the paragraph will make sense．
① In less than three years the farm
had gone to pieces．②All the windows had been broken out of the big two-story farm house．③In the front of the house the
grass was about three feet tall andthe barn yard was full of weeds instead of
pigs squealing to be fed．④There were no more cows to milk or horses to ride．⑤My grandmother's farm has a lot of
enjoyable memories for me，but after she died， I left home to join the army and when I returned，I was disappointed at the changes
that had taken place．⑥ Paint was peeling off the house and the porch roof was sagging．⑦ Lively as the place had been
before my grandmother died， it seemed to have died with her now．⑧This farm had once been lively with the noise of a tractor plowing
the land and a dog barking whenever someone came up to the house．
Topic Sentence：________Supporting Details：________
Concluding Sentence：_________
Exercise 5-2
Directions： Read the following paragraphs and underline the topic sentence of
each． Then write your
own concluding sentence to complete each paragraph．
（1）
Pollution has caused three major problems in the last decades．First， with the development of industry， more and more factories have been built and have sent out smoke and
poisonous gases．Thus the air
is polluted． The
increasing number of cars adds to the air pollution． Second， farmers use chemical fertilizers
to increase production and insecticide to kill insects． When rain flows with these
poisonous chemicals to rivers， water is polluted． A third formof pollution， noise， is becoming
more and more serious． Very loud noises can make people sick， and even drive them mad．
____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
（2）
There are three important findings from studies concerned with
notetaking． First，notetaking does not interfere with
listening and comprehension； in fact， it helps you listen． Second， students who study their lecture notes remember one and a half
times more after six weeks than students who do not review． Third， students who take no notes， or do not study their notes， forget approximately 80percent of
the lecture by the end of two weeks．From these findings we can conclude that students who take enough
notes and then study them， both directly after the lecture and several additional times before
an examination， stand a good
chance of remembering between90 and 100％ of the material！_______________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
第六单元 如何写好一个段落（Ⅰ）
6．1段落的特征
一个好的段落应该具有以下三个特征：1）完整性（completeness）； 2）统一性（unity）； 3）连贯性（coherence）。
6．2完整性
段落的完整性指的是段落得以充分展开。作者一俟写好主题句，就应该用细节进行推展，细节越充足越好。例如，你认为“Riding motorcycles is dangerous”，你就应该用你所知道的事实证明这一观点是正确的。你可以使用数字（statistics），列举例子（example），进行描绘（descriptions）等等。
示范段落6-1
Ever since the time of the Greeks， drama has played an important role in man's lives． The Greek tragedies and come dies
were a central part of the citizens' lives in ancient Greece． During the Middle Ages， Bible stories were acted out in
churches，and wandering
companies of players performed in the streets． In modern times， drama is brought directly into people's homes through the magic of
television．
6．3示范段落分析
主题句： Ever since the time of the
Greeks， drama has
played animportant role in man's lives．
细节：1． ancient Greece
2． the Middle
Ages
3． modern times
作者根据各个不同历史时期提供细节，举例说明戏剧的重要性。
6．4 统一性
一个好的段落应该具有统一性。统一性就是一个中心思想统领整个段落。每个细节都应支持主题句，不应有无关的细节。为了支持主题，要尽可能多地提供细节，但又要避免滥用细节。
读下面段落，然后找出毛病。
① Innovations， whether practical or aesthetic， are often resisted by the general
population．② When the
early experiments in the field of aviation began their work， there were many who said，“If God had wanted man to fly， he would have given him wings．③The Wright brothers made the first
powered flights in a heavier-than-air craft in 1903 at Kitty Hawk， North Carolina．④Even today there are many who
strongly object to modern art and music as being nothing more than “splashes of paint and honking horns．”⑤The painter Picasso's well-known
masterpiece “The Three
Musicians” is done
primarily in blues and browns．
6．5段落分析
主题句： Innovations， whether practical or aesthetic， are often resisted by the general
population．
推展细节：1． People's objection to the early experiments in the field of
aviation．
2． People's
objection to modern art and music．
无关细节：1． The Wright brothers' experiment in flight．
2．Picasso's
painting．
显然这不是个好的段落，因为并非所有的推展句都支持主题句。应该把无关的细节删去。下图是一个有统一性的段落的结构图。
图：42110037ZW_0007_1
Exercise 6-1
Directions： In the folowing sentence grouping， circle the letter in front of any detail that does not support the
topic sentence．
Topic Sentence：My main satisfaction in life comes from the people who are part of
my life．
Supporting Details：
a． For me a day
is good or bad depending on whether or not I havegooten along well with my
associates．
b． I am not at
all affected by the weather the way some people are．
c． For instance， my father judges his day by
whether or not the skyis blue．
d． On a rainy
day he is always in a bad mood．
e． What counts
for me is to feel human warmth and friendship．
f． My favourite
entertainment is to be with one or two intimate friends， sitting in front of a fireplace
and sharing intimate recollections．
Exercise 6-2
Directions： Read the following paragraph and identify the irrelevant sentences．
① Different people spend their
weekends in different ways．②Some enjoy going to the mountains to hike， ski or just relax．③Water skiing is much more
difficult than snow skiing．④Others prefer going to the beach to enjoy the seashore activities
and to get a suntan．⑤ Some of these people work very hard during the week；others have rather relaxing jobs．⑥ Still others like to relax by
staying home and reading a good book．
Topic Sentence：________
Irrelevant Sentences：________________
Exercise 6-3
Directions： List at least five details that might used to develop thegiven
topic sentence．
Topic sentence： Day dreaming has always been my favourite．
Details：1．_______________________________________________
2．_______________________________________________
3．_______________________________________________
4．_______________________________________________
5．_______________________________________________
第七单元 如何写好一个段落（Ⅱ）
7．1连贯性
段落的连贯性指的是段落的句子以清晰、符合逻辑的顺序（clear， logical sequence）连接。连贯性使读者能够找出每个观点之间的联系以及这些观点与主题句的联系。
7．2关于如何取得连贯性的建议
1）使用同一时态
如果随意而毫无理由地改变时态（tenses），那么不管作者连句的技巧多么高超，段落也不可能取得连贯性。在写作时，可以使用现在时（ present tense）或过去时（past tense）。选用哪一种取决于作者处理材料的方式。
2）使用某种逻辑顺序
常用的逻辑顺序有： 1）时间顺序（time order）； 2）空间顺序（space order）（见第12单元）； 3）重要性顺序（order of importance）和 4）熟悉度顺序（order of familiarity）（见第 19单元）。
3）使用连接成分
使用某些连接词和短语（connective word Sand
phrases），重复某些关键词（repetition
of certain key words），可以大大增加段落的连贯性。某些连接词、短语和关键词可以起粘着物（adhesives）的作用，把各部分连接起来，使句子间的关系更加清楚。连接成分主要有以下三种：
a．连接词语（linking
expressions）（见第34单元）
b．代词（pronouns）
代词用于提醒读者注意其先行词，以此把有关的部分连接起来。
c．重复关键词语（repetition
of key words）
示范段落7．1
① Until recently daydreaming was
viewed as a waste of time．② Or it was considered an unhealthy escape from real life and its
duties．③ But now
some people are taking a fresh look at daydreaming．④ And it may be that more people
are suffering from a lack of daydreaming than are suffering from too much of it．
7．3示范段落分析
顺序：熟悉度和对比关系
连接词语：①“until recently”②“or”③“but”④“and”⑤“then”
代词：① daydreaming—②it—④ it（the second
one）
重复关键词：①daydreaming—③daydreaming
④daydreaming
Exercise 7-1
Directions： Arrange the following sentences into a paragraph，using the coherence devices as the
hints．
① Clearly， in agriculture and industry， the progress of a country depends
on the busy hands of its working people．
② Finally， the establishment of efficient
transportation and communication systems， essential services in a modernizing economy， relies heavily on a lab our force
of expert craftsmen who take pride in their manual skills．
③ And of course the manufactures as
well as the maintenance of machines of all kinds demands a large number of
trained mechanics and technicians．
④ To begin with， ploughing fields，planting and harvesting crops， and raising livestock are all
important to development and all require people who work with their hands．
⑤ Secondly， mining natural resources， building roads and bridges， and constructing dams for
irrigation and electrical power are also important to development and also
require people who know how to use their hands skillfully．
⑥ Manual lab our is one of the
principal development resources in any industralizing country， as the following examples
demonstrate．
Topic Sentence：____________
Details：___________________
Concluding Sentence：____________
Exercise 7-2
Directions： In the following paragraph， find all the words that help the reader move smoothly from one
detail to another．write these
words in the blanks to the right．
To prepare a nutritious breakfast of cereal and milk you need tofollow
only a few simple directions． First， acquire the
necessary ingredients and materials： dry cereal of your choice， milk， sugar，fruit， a cereal bowl and a soup spoon． Second， pour the cereal into the bowl until the bowl is half full． Next ，cut up the fruit and arrange it on
top of the cereal； then
sprinkle sugar over the fruit，if desired． Once you have layered the cereal and fruit in the bowl，you are ready for the milk． Now， pour enough milk into the bowl to just barely cover the cereal and
fruit． At last， your breakfast is ready；pick up your spoon and dig in！
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
第八单元 推展段落方法之一——事实与数据法
在第四单元，我们曾提到推展段落的方法有多种。从这一单元开始，我们将逐个介绍这些方法。
8．1事实与数据法
事实（a fact）是可以客观证实的事情。例如：“The sunrises in the
