east．”是个事实。“Oil
and water do not mix．”也是个事实。两者都可以通过实验证明是真实的。但是“Eating carrots improves eyesight．”也许是真实也许是不真实的。这不是个事实，是一种看法（opinion）。数据（a statistic）是一个数字事实（a numeral fact），用于给某一主题提供有意义的信息。例如：
There are twenty－five students in the class．”是一个数据。
示范段落8－1
The term population explosion is usually applied to the rapid growth
of population over the last three centuries．In the two hundred years from 1650 to 1850，world population doubled and
reached its first billion．In the next eighty years，it doubled again，and by 1975，it had doubled once more to a total of 4 billion．By the year 2000，it is estimated that it will exceed
6 billion and possibly approach 7 billion unless there is a major reduction in
birth rates or amajor increase in death rates．
8．2示范段落分析
主题句：The term population explosion is
usually applied to the rapid growth of population over the last three centuries．
提供信息：
数据1：1650-1850；double，reach 1
billion
数据2：1850－1930；double again，reach 2 billion
数据3：1930－1975；double again，reach 4 billion
数据4：1975－2000；exceed 6 billion，approach 7 billion
示范段落8-2
A snake is a strange animal．It walks on its ribs and it smells with its tongue．Since its teeth are sharp like
needles and not good for chewing，it swallows its food whole．
8．3示范段落分析
主题句：A snake is a strange animal．
事实1：walks with its ribs and smells with its tongue
事实2：swallows its food whole
8．4关于如何写事实与数据段落的建议
1）不要把事实与看法混为一谈
事实是真实的，因为它们已被证据证实。然而看法只是人们的主观想法，不一定真实。因此，记住用事实而不是用看法支持你的观点。
2）不要使用不相关的数据
如果你为了增加观点的可信度而使用不相关的数据，即使这些数据是真实的，也会引起误解。
Exercise 8-1
Directions：Write a paragraph with statistics as supporting details，using the given topic sentence and
statistics．
Statistic：blood pressure before the exam—115／55
Statistic：at the end of the exam—155／115
Statistic：ten minutes after the exam—150／110
Exams apparently have a marked effect on the blood pressure of the
students taking them．___________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
Exercise 8-2
Directions：Write a paragraph with facts as supporting details using the given
topic sentence and facts．
Fact：William is
the second most common boy's name used in English（the first being John）
Fact：History is
full of Williams．
a．William of
Nor many—conquerer of
England in 1066
b．William
Shakespeare—writer
c．William Cody—a hero of the Wild West
Is your name William？If so， you have
company．____________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
第九单元 推展段落方法之二——叙述法
9．1叙述法
叙述法（narration）回答了“发生了什么”（what happened）这一问题。叙述经常用于讲述一系列事件。这种方法常用作小说（fiction）、传记（biographs）的支配方法，也可用作其他各种文体的辅助方法。例如，轶事（anecdotes）、寓言（fables）等都是用叙述形式阐述某一观点。
示范段落9－1
I was seven years old when I first became aware of the terrible
power of guilt．For piling
our toys into the toy box，Mother had rewarded my brother and me with five shiny pennies each．If I had ten pennies instead of
just five，I could have
bought a ginger bread man with raisin eyes and sugar－frosted hair．The image danced in my head all day，until，finally，I crept into my brother's room and stole his five pennies．The next morning，as my brother and I were dressing
to go to school，I had all ten
pennies in the pocket of my coat，cramming one of my father's handkerchiefs on top of them．As my brother and I lined up in
front of Mother to be kissed goodbye，she looked at my bulging pocket with amazement．“What on earth do you have in your
pocket？she asked．“It's nothing，”I said，as offhandedly as I could．“It's nothing at all．”Bewildered，but toobusy to investigate any
further，Mother kissed
me goodbye I ran out the door and down our gravel path as fast as my feet could
carry me．But the
farther from home I got，the more miserable I became．The shiny pennies in my pocket felt oppressively like one－ton boulders．And I was haunted by the idea that
I had become a thief．Forgotten was the gingerbread man，for whose sake I had stolen my brother's pennies Finally，unable to bear my horrible feeling
of guilt，I ran back
home to blurt out my crime to my mother．
9．2示范段落分析
在上面段落中，作者在主题句中阐述了他的观点：I was seven
years old when I first became aware of the terrible power of guilt．然后用一件轶事作为支持这一观点的细节，叙述发生了什么事，并说明了他的观点。
9．3关于如何写叙述段落的建议
1）只着重叙述有意义的事件和经历
尽量避免日常琐事和无聊事，只使用那些有助于阐明你的观点的事件和经历。
2）保持始终如一的着眼点
不管叙述是以第一人称或第三人称进行，都要尽量使语言从叙述者的着眼点（point
of view）反映叙述者的见解和意向。
3）运用细节
写叙述段落时要运用细节，使人物栩栩如生，并在读者的想象中唤起事件发生的那种环境气氛。在描绘人物时也使用细节，使人物血肉丰满，形象生动。
4）使用时间顺序
叙述几乎总是使用时间顺序法来组织细节。（第12单元将讨论时间顺序法）
Exercise 9-1
Directions：Write a paragraph of narration using the given topic sentence．
Not knowing a language well can sometimes be embarrassing．
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Exercise 9－2
Directions：Write a paragraph of narration，telling about one of your memorable trip．
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
第十单元 推展段落方法之三——描述法
10．1描述法
叙述讲述发生了什么事情，描述（description）则向读者描绘某事物的样子、声音、味道等等。作者可以通过外表、行动或变化用语言描绘一个人，一个物体，一个地方或一个场面。
示范段落10－1
A tsunami is a great wave or series of waves．It extends from the surface to the
sea floor and moves the entire vertical section of ocean through which it
speeds．The greater
the ocean depth，the faster
the tsunami travels．Speeds of up to 600 mph have been reached．Toward land it slows down as the
bottom of the wave drags on the seabed；its crest rises from fifty to a hundred feet or more．
10．2示范段落分析
主题句：A tsunami is a great wave or
series of waves．
细节1：extention
细节2：speed（statistics
used）
细节3：height（statistics
used）
在上面段落中，作者用细节（包括数据）描述了海啸的宽度（extention）、速度（speed）和高度（height），从而告诉读者海啸是什么样子。
示范段落10－2
The kitchen was in a mess．Along the left wall were the counter and
sink covered with dirty dishes and garbage．On the far wall the washing machine groaned under a load of filthy
clothes．Right next
to the door where I was standing，on my right，I saw at able cluttered with old
newspapers，an overturned
catsup bottle，and a wet，half－eaten hot dog．At the far end of the right wall the
refrigerator stood with the door ajar and milk dripping down from the top shelf．It was the messiest kitchen I had
ever seen．
10．3示范段落分析
主题句：The kitchen was in a mess．
细节1：Along the left wall—counter and sink
细节2：On the far wall—washing machine
细节3：Right next to the door，on my right—table
细节4：At the far end of the right wall—refrigerator
结论句：It was the messiest kitchen I
had ever seen．
10．4关于如何写描述段落的建议
1）主题句给读者一个深刻的印象
写一段好的描述段落要注意两个方面：首先给读者一个深刻的印象（a
dominant impression），然后运用充分的细节（aptdetails）。这种深刻的印象必须首先吸引读者，因此不要在主题句中用太琐碎的东西冲淡这一印象。
比较下面两个主题句：
a．The kitchen
is in a mess．
b．The kitchen
is a place where the hostess does almost all the housework and as a consequence
it is not always attractive and neat．
显然，前一句主题句比后一句更吸引读者，因为它能给人以更深刻的印象。
2）提供充足的细节
具体和生动的细节是成功的描述所不可缺少的。在示范段落10-1中，作者通过海啸外表的生动细节以及速度和高度的具体数据描述海啸。在示范段落10－2中，在主题句后，作者提供细节描绘厨房是怎样的乱七八糟。记住不要提供无用的细节使读者失望。
3）使用空间顺序法（space
order）组织段落
好的描述还在于把一大堆具体的细节按空间顺序组成一个整体（关于空间顺序法见第12单元）。在示范段落10－1，作者按照从表面到海底，从远到近的顺序描绘。在示范段落10－2中，作者按照从左到右，从近到远的顺序描绘。
4）使用有新意的明喻和暗喻
明喻（Similes）和暗喻（metaphors）可使描述更加生动。但要尽量避免使用已经用得太滥的比喻。
Exercise 10-1
Directions：Write a paragraph of description，describing a student dormitory．
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Exercise 10－2
Directions：Write a paragraph of desccription，describing a natural phenomenon that you are familiar with．
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
第十一单元 推展段落方法之四
——过程分析法
11．1过程分析法
过程分析法（process analysis）用作支配方法时，其目的是告诉读者怎样做某事，说明某事物的工作原理或某事物的制造方法。
示范段落11－1
Even if you don't know how to cook，you'll never starve to death if you know how to prepare scrambled
eggs．You begin by
melting one tablespoon of butter in a frying pan over low heat．While the butter is melting，break three eggs into a bowl．Add 1／4teaspoon of salt，1／4 teaspoon of
paprika，and three
tablespoons of milk to the eggs in the bowl and mix them for about a minute．Pour the mixture into the frying
pan，break them
into shreds with a fork，or stir them with a spoon until they become solid．When they are cooked，serve them with lightly buttered
toast．
11．2示范段落分析
主题句：Even if you don't know how to
cook，you'll never
starve to death if you know how to prepare scrambled eggs．
步骤1：melt butter
步骤2：break eggs
步骤3：add salt，paprika and milk to the eggs
步骤4：mix them
步骤5：pour into the frying pan and stir them
步骤6：serve with buttered toast
11．3关于如何写过程分析段落的建议
1）按照事物发展过程的顺序解释过程
过程分析通常使用时间顺序法组织段落，因为告诉别人怎样做某件事的最容易的方法是一步一步地分析。
2）提及必要的用具、成分的分量和时机，在适当的地方提醒读者注意容易做错的地方。
3）使用列举符号表示步骤。
下面的列举符号（listing signals）常用于过程描述：
first，second，third，etc．
to begin with，then，finally，etc．
Exercise 11-1
Directions：Read the following paragraph，then find out the topic sentence，the listing signals and analyze the steps of the process．
In his will，Alfred Nobel left specific instructions as to how the winners of the
science awards he endowed are to be selected．First，each year the
Swedish Academy of Sciences（physics and chemistry）and the Caroline Medical Institute（physiology and medicine）solicit nearly two thousand recommendations from past laureates，university professors and other
experts from all over the world．The second step is the review of recommendations received and the
selections of preliminary candidates by special committees within the two
Swedish institutions．The committee members are specifically instructed that those chosen “shall have conferred the greatest
benefit on mankind，”and that no considerations be given to the candidates' nationalities．Next，after lengthy investigation and discussion，the final choices are made for each
discipline．Finally，telegrams informing them of their
awards are sent to the new Nobel laureates about one month prior to the award
ceremony．
Topic Sentence：____________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
Listing Signals：_____________________________________________
Steps： 1．______________________________________________
2．______________________________________________
3．______________________________________________
4．______________________________________________
Exercise 11-2
Directions：The sentences below constitute a paragraph on the scientific methods．However，the sentences have been given in a
disordered sequence．You should place them in their correct order．
a．Following
this method，the reseacher
first observe some aspects of nature and then poses a specific question about
what he has observed．
b．Experiments
based on this hypothesis are designed and conductedto test each contingency．
c．In order to
answer this question，potent data are collected．
d．After
thorough experimentation，the researcher validates，modifies，or rejects his original hypothesis．
e．Originating
from the branch of philosophy called epistemology，what we now know as the scientific method provides guidelinesf of
the systematic acquisition of knowledge．
f．On the basis
of these data，a hypothesis
is proposed to explain them．
The right order：______________________________
Exercise 11-3
Directions：Write a paragraph about how to prepare a barbecue picnic in the park．
______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
第十二单元 组织段落方法——时间顺序法和空间顺序法
组织段落的常见方法有：1）时间顺序；2）空间顺序；3）重要性顺序和；4）熟悉度顺序。在前几单元，我们曾提到写叙述段落和过程分析时用时间顺序，写描述段落时用空间顺序。在这一单元里，我们将着重讨论这两种组织方法。另两种方法——重要性和熟悉度顺序——将在第19单元讨论。
12．1时间顺序法
段落内组织细节的最简单最常见的方法是时间顺序法（time order
organization）。时间顺序通常用于叙述和过程分析——先发生什么，然后怎样，再然后怎样，等等。正如我们在示范段落9－1和示范段落11－1所看到的一样。其实在你的生活中你经常运用这种方法。你也许曾经告诉你父母在学校里发生的事情。你也许向老师或同学叙述过你是怎样做一个实验的。这些用的都是时间顺序。
12．2关于如何写时间顺序段落的建议
1）写下你要记录的事件或步骤，然后按照时间顺序排列
2）确定你的写作目的，然后写出带有中心思想的主题句
3）从你列举的事件或步骤中删除与中心思想无关的细节
4）使用“first，then，the next step”等等列举符号把细节连接起来
12．3空间顺序法
段落组织的另一方法是空间顺序法（space order
organization）。空间顺序主要用于描述，正如我们在示范段落10－1和示范段落10－2所看到的。空间顺序和时间顺序一样，是生活中经常使用的方法。你也许曾在信中向你父母描述你的学院，或向你的同学描述一个风景区。
12．4关于如何写空间顺序段落的建议
按照你想让你的读者了解你要描绘的场面的方式移动——例如，从左到右，或从背景到前景，或按顺时针方向，等等。
12．5综合运用空间顺序和时间顺序
有时候，尤其在描写参观时，有必要同时运用空间顺序和时间顺序，以增强段落的统一性。
示范段落12-1
We enjoyed our visit to Dr Hassan's house，perched high up on a hill．Walking up the long driveway，we approached the huge bronze door．A butler was standing in the open
doorway，ushering
guests into the house．Going in，we passed the oak－pannelled library and the formal dining room before we arrived at
the ballroom，where the
reception was being held．Under three sparkling chandeliers，more than a hundred people were enjoying champagne，hors d'oeuvres and good
conversation．
12．6示范段落分析
主题句：We enjoyed our visit to Dr
Hassan's house．
时间空间顺序：driveway→door→house→library→diningroom→ballroom
Exercise 12－1
Directions：Arrange the sentences into a paragraph，using the time order and adding the necessary listing signals．
—She never had a birthday party and
