she was twenty－one year sold．
—The party was really a successful
one．
—We planned to serve fruit punch and
coffee．
—We planned entertainment．
—We carefully made a guest list．
—We planned a surprise party for
Mary recently．
—We included many of her friends
from school，a few of her
friends from her neighbourhood，and all of her brothers and sisters．
—A boy did mayic tricks skillfully；another boy played the guitar well．
—We also wanted chicken sandwiches，a birthday cake with twenty－one candles，and ice cream．
—We especially enjoyed the group
singing．
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Exercise 12-2
Directions：Narrate an incident from your own childhood in which you behave in a
way you later regretted，using time order．
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Exercise 12－3
Directions：Narrate one of your trip，either by bike，by bus or bytrain，combining time order and space order．
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
第十三单元 推展段落方法之五——举例法
13．1举例法
举例法（examples）也是推展主题的主要方法。举例法有两种形式，一种是首先陈述自己的观点，然后举出一个或多个例子阐明观点；另一种是先举一个很长的例子，然后转入例子所要阐明的观点。
读下面段落：
Courage is the willingness to take a risk when the outcome is
uncertain，and when the
risk taken may involve harm，loss，or danger to
the one taking it．The
courageous person fears no one and nothing．He or she is undaunted by danger or peril．He or she will venture boldly into
an uncertain situation，hardly giving a thought to the harm or consequences which may result
to his or her person．
以上段落的缺点是乏味、含糊，不能向读者表达作者关于“courage”的看法。请看下面重写后的段落。
示范段落13-1
Courage is the willingness to take a risk when the outcome is
uncertain，and when the
risk taken may involve harm，loss，or danger to
the one taking it．For example，in a Los Angeles suburb，a twelve－year－old girl ran into a burning house to rescue her baby brother，pulled him unconscious out of the
burning bedroom，and dragged
him down the stairs and outside to safety．This was arousing display of courage．The girl had been safe outside the flaming house when she remembered
her sleeping brother．Disregarding her personal safety，she plunged into the flaming house to save him．
13．2示范段落分析
较之上一段落，这个段落更能清晰地传达作者关于“courage”的观点。首先，作者概述什么是“courage”，然后举出一个女孩子从燃烧着的房子中把弟弟救出来的例子阐明这一观点。
13．2关于写举例法段落的建议
1）选择恰当的例子
所选的例子应该能够恰当地支持自己的观点。
2）要表明你的例子所要阐明的观点
大多数作者使用“for example”等短语引出例子。其它常用的短语有：“as an example”，“to illustrate”，“for instance”，“an illustration of it”，“a case in point”（见第34单元）。
3）不要滥用例子
Exercise 13-1
Directions：Read the following paragraph，point out the topic sentence，and find out what example the writer uses to illustrate his point．
Despite her wealth，Madame Rubinstein had a mania for saving money．French President Georges Pompidou
once rented a Paris apartment from her．She noticed that he left the building at exactlly8：50 every morning．Madame began ordering her daily
taxi for 8：45 so that
she could save on cab fare by following Pompidou's motorcycle escort through
the heavy Paris traffic．
Topic Sentence：____________________________________________
Example：__________________________________________________
Exercise 13-2
Directions：Choose one of the given topic sentences and use an example to
develop the point．
（1）
Doing part－time jobs helps increase our experience．
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
（2）
You may have heard the old saying，“Self-help is the best help．”The truth of it has been proved by the successful lives of many
great men and women．
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
第十四单元 推展段落方法之六
——比较与对比法
14．1比较与对比法
有时为了说明某一事物，需要与其他事物联系起来才能阐述清楚，这就是对比或比较（comparison or contrast）。比较方法和对比方法基本一致，不同的是比较强调两事物如何相同，对比强调两事物如何不同。
示范段落14－1
Life in the city is quite different from life in the suburbs．People living in the city are
constantly exposed to the hustle and bustle of urban life．But life in the suburbs is
generally quiet and casual and generally more low－key than in the city．If city dwellers want to see trees and grass，they must go to one of the public
parks．On the other
hand，the streets
of many suburban communities are lined with trees and shrubs，and each house has its own grassy
yard．A person
living in the city is close to many sources of entertainment，but people living in suburan areas
must go into the city for entertainment．
示范段落14－2
The llama is a member of the camel family．Like the camel，the llama can live for weeks
without a drink of water．Both get enough moisture from the grass，shrubs，and other plants they eat．But unlike the camel，the llama has no hump on its back．
14．2示范段落分析
示范段落14－1所用的支配方法是对比。作者对比城市生活与城郊生活。而示范段落14－2同时运用了比较和对比方法，既描绘了无峰驼和骆驼的共同点，也描绘了不同点。
14．3关于如何写比较或对比段落的建议
1）弄清比较或对比的基点
在写比较或对比时，第一步是确定比较／对比的基点。在示范段落14－1中，作者把对比基于生活步调、视野和娱乐上。在示范段落14－2中，作者把比较和对比基于无峰驼和骆驼的特性和外表上。
2）用逐事比较或逐点比较的方法组织比较或对比段落一旦确定了比较／对比基点，作者就可以用以下两种方式之一推展段落：逐事比较（item－by－item）或逐点比较（point－by－point）。
逐事比较重点放在被比较和对比的特定事物上，先叙述A事物，再叙述B事物。逐点比较重点放在两事物中每个事物的各个特征上，先叙述每个事物某一特征，再叙述每个事物的另一特征。如下面比较“a motor－cycle”和“a car”的异同的大纲所示：
Item－by－Item
Ⅰ．Motorcycle A．Expense B．Upkeep C．Safety
Ⅱ．Automobile A．Expense B．Upkeep C．Safety
Point－by－Point
Ⅰ．Expense A．Motorcycle B．Autormobile
Ⅱ．Upkeep A．Motorcycle B．Autormobile
Ⅲ．Safety A．Motorcycle B．Autormobile
3）运用连接词语保持连贯（连接词语见第34单元）
Exercise 14-1
Directions：Write a paragraph using a point－by－point
comparison/contrast about the advantages of bikes over cars or
buses．The outline
and the topic sentence are given．
Outline：Ⅰ．Expense A．Cars or buses B．Bikes
Ⅱ．Convenience A．Cars or buses B．Bikes
Ⅲ．Pollution A．Cars or buses B．Bikes
As compared with cars or buses，bicycles have unique advantages for Chinese people．
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Exercise 14-2
Directions：Write a paragraph of contrast，contrasting women today with women in the past（hints：social status，family status，etc．）．
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
第十五单元 推展段落方法之七——下定义法
15．1下定义法
下定义（definition）就是解释某事物是什么，不是什么。写下定义段落时，通常把概念或要下定义的事物置于一个大的类别中，然后解释该事物与同一类别的其它事物有何不同。下定义法多用作推展段落的辅助方法。
示范段落15－1
A pencil is an instrument for writing on paper．It is of cylindrical shape and can
be held between the first two fingers of the hand．It is about 6 inches long and 1／4 inch wide．At the end there is usually an eraser attached to the pencil by a
surrounding metal band．Lead is the material which is used in making the marks on the paper，and a sharpener is needed to keep
the pencil in good working order．Pencils are made of various kinds of wood．
15．2示范段落分析
主题句：A pencil is an instrument for
writing on paper．细节：shape，material
15．3关于如何写下定义段落
1）以正式的定义开始
一个正式的定义段落通常把要定义的术语置于一个概类中，然后指出该术语与其它同类别事物有什么不同。在示范段落15－1中，要定义的术语是“pencil”，属于概类“instrument”。
2）用描述、举例或比较对比方法扩充定义
在正式的定义之后，必须更详细地解释该术语的意思，在示范段落15－1中用的是描述法，在示范段落13－1中，扩充“courage”概念用的是举例法。比较对比法也可以用于扩充定义，对比法陈述该事物不是什么，比较法陈述该事物象什么。
Exercise 15-1
Directions：Read the following paragraph，point out the topic sentence and find out what method（s）are used to expand the defintion．
Chemistry is that branch of science which has the task of
investigating the materials out of which the universe is made．It is not concerned with the forms
into which they may be fashioned．Such objects as chairs，tables，vases，bottles，or wires are of no significance in
chemistry；but such
substances as glass，wool，iron，sulfur，and clay，as the materials out of which they
are made，are what it
studies．Chemistry is
concerned not only with the composition of such substances，but also with their inner structure．
Topic Sentence：____________________________________________
Method（s） used：_______________________________________
Exercise 15－2
Directions：The definition of“an ice－box”can be，“An ice－box is an appliance for storing
food at low temperature．”Now use the method of description to expand the definition．
An ice－box is an
appliance for storing food at low temperature．
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Exercise 15-3
Directions：Give the defintion of friendship and then use an example to expand
your definition．
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
第十六单元 推展段落方法之八——分类法
16．1分类法
分类法（division and classification）是把一事物拆成几部分，表明这些部分与整体的关系。通常，作者以总类开头，然后把总类拆开，——列举部分或全部分类。
示范段落16－1
There are three basic kinds of materials that can be found in any
good library．First，there are books on all subjects，both in English and in many other
languages．These books
are organized according to subject，title，and author in
a central filing system called card catalog．Books can generally be checked out of the library and taken home for
a period of two to four weeks．Second，there are
reference materials，which include encyclopedias，dictionaries，bibliographies，atlases，etc．and which
generally must be used in the library itself．Third，there are
periodicals—magazines，news－papers，pamphlets—which are filed alphbetically in
racks or which have been micro－filmed to conserve space．Like reference works，periodicals cannot usually be removed from the library．
16．2示范段落分析
主题句：There are three basic kinds of
materials that can be foundin any good library．
分类词（Classifier）：kinds
列举词（Listing Signals）：first，second，third
分类（Categories）：1．books on all subjects
2．reference
materials
3．periodicals
16．2关于如何写分类段落的建议
1）依据一个原则分类
把一事物分类后，要自始至终遵循同一分类原则。在示范段落16－1，分类原则是“the kinds of materials”。
2）所分类别必须互不包容
在示范段落16－1中，属于第一类的“books on all subjects”与属于第二类的“reference materials”界线分明．反之亦然。
3）分类必须完整
如果所分类别不完整，所作的分类则徒劳无益。如上例，所分三种“materials”应包括“all materials in a library”。
4）运用熟悉度方法排列
作者经常根据该读者对所分类别的熟悉程度排列顺序。通常先讨论读者最熟悉的，然后逐步讨论不熟悉的（关于熟悉度法见第19单元）。
5）使用分类词和列举符号
有经验的作者经常使用类词介绍概类，然后使用列举符号表明概类中的各分类。在示范段落16－1中，类词是“kind”，列举符号是“first，second，third”，下面是经常使用的类词：
kind，type，group，thought，way，class，part，element，factor，aspect，division，characteristic，subdivision，reasons，category，等等。
Exercise 16-1
Directions：Read the following paragraph，find out the topic sentence，the classifier，and the categories．
There are three fundamental human body types—endomorphic，mesomorphic，and ectomorphic．The extreme endomorph combines
heavy fat distribution and lack of bony angularity with around face，short neck，wide hips，and heavy limbs．The extreme mesomorph has a solid
chest，slender waist，long torso，and relatively short，powerful arms and legs．Extreme ectomorphs are
characterized by their slender bodies，short trunks，long arms and legs，long narrow hands and feet，and lack of fat．
Topic Sentence：____________________________________________
Classifier：_____________
Categories：________________________________________________
Exercise 16－2
Directions：Divide the books college students often read into three kinds and
describe them one by one．
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Exercise 16-3
Directions：Write a paragraph of division and catagory with the given topic
sentence and details．
Topic sentence：A language is made up of many elements
Details：1．sounds 2．words 3．sentences
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
第十七单元 推展段落方法之九——因果法（Ⅰ）
17．1因果法
因果法（cause and effect）段落通常回答“why？”的问题。大多数人认为在自己或别人生活中发生的事情必然事出有因，因此总要知道为什么会发生这样或那样的事情。原因（cause）指的是导致结果的发生在过去的事情，结果（effect）指的是已发生的事情将会产生的后果。
17．2结果法
解释一个原因（cause）的几个结果（effects）的段落，可能以下面两种顺序之一出现：或者以原因开头，接着指出一个一个结果，如下面示范段落17－1所示；或首先摆出结果，然后指出原因。
示范段落17－1
Many people are worried about what television has done to the
generation of American children who have grown up watching it．For one thing，recent studies tend to show that TV
stifles creative imagination．Some teachers feel that television has taken away the child's
ability to form mental pictures in his own mind，resulting in children who cannot understand a simple story without
visualillustrations．Secondly，too much TV too early tends to cause children to withdraw from real
life experiences．Thus，they grow up to be passive
spectators who can only respond to action，but not initiate it．The third area for concern is the serious complaint frequently made
by elementary school teachers that children exhibit a low tolerance for the
frustrations of learning．Because they have been conditioned to see all problems resolved in
