46 Harold M. Tanner, China: A History (Indianapolis: Hackett, Pub. Co., 2009), 34.
47 Ramesh Chandra, Identity and Genesis of Caste System in India (Delhi: Kalpaz Publications, 2005); Michael Bamshad et al., ‘Genetic Evidence on the Origins of Indian Caste Population’, Genome Research 11 (2001): 904-1004; Susan Bayly, Caste, Society and Politics in India from the Eighteenth Century to the Modern Age (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999).
48 Houston, First Writing, 196.
49 The Secretary-General, United Nations, Report of the Secretary-General on the In-depth Study on All Forms of Violence Against Women, delivered to the General Assembly, U.N. Doc. A/16/122/Add.1 (July 6, 2006), 89.
50 Sue Blundell, Women in Ancient Greece (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1995), 113-29, 132-33.
51 Francisco López de Gómara, Historia de la Conquista de Mexico, vol. 1, ed. D. Joaquin Ramirez Caba.es (Mexico City: Editorial Pedro Robredo, 1943), 106.
52 Andrew M. Watson, ‘Back to Gold – and Silver’, Economic History Review 20:1 (1967), 11-12; Jasim Alubudi, Repertorio Bibliográfico del Islam (Madrid: Vision Libros, 2003), 194.
53 Watson, ‘Back to Gold – and Silver’, 17-18.
54 David Graeber, Debt: The First 5000 Years (Brooklyn, N.Y.: Melville House, 2011).
55 Glyn Davies, A History of Money: from Ancient Times to the Present Day (Cardiff: University of Wales Press, 1994), 15.
56 Szymon Laks, Music of Another World, trans. Chester A. Kisiel (Evanston, Ill.: Northwestern University Press, 1989), 88-89. 奥斯维辛集中营的“市场”仅限于部分阶级的囚犯，而且在不同时期的差异非常大。
57 Niall Ferguson, The Ascent of Money (New York: The Penguin Press, 2008), 4.
58 关于麦元的信息，我参考了一本未出版的博士论文：Refael Benvenisti, Economic Institutions of Ancient Assyrian Trade in the Twentieth to Eighteenth Centuries BC (Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, 2011). 并请参见：Norman Yoffee, ‘The Economy of Ancient Western Asia’, in Civilizations of the Ancient Near East, vol. 1, ed. J. M. Sasson (New York: C. Scribner’s Sons, 1995), 1387-99; R. K. Englund, ‘Proto-Cuneiform Account-Books and Journals’, in Creating Economic Order: Record-keeping, Standardization, and the Development of Accounting in the Ancient Near East, ed. Michael Hudson and Cornelia Wunsch (Bethesda, MD: CDL Press, 2004), 21-46; Marvin A. Powell, ‘A Contribution to the History of Money in Mesopotamia prior to the Invention of Coinage’, in Festschrift Lubor Matou., ed. B. Hru.ka and G. Komoróczy (Budapest: E.tv.s Loránd Tudományegyetem, 1978), 211-43; Marvin A. Powell, ‘Money in Mesopotamia’, Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient, 39:3 (1996), 224-42; John F. Robertson, ‘The Social and Economic Organization of Ancient Mesopotamian Temples’, in Civilizations of the Ancient Near East, vol. 1, ed. Sasson, 443-500; M. Silver, ‘Modern Ancients’, in Commerce and Monetary Systems in the Ancient World: Means of Transmission and Cultural Interaction, ed. R. Rollinger and U. Christoph (Stuttgart: Steiner, 2004), 65-87; Daniel C. Snell, ‘Methods of Exchange and Coinage in Ancient Western Asia’, in Civilizations of the Ancient Near East, vol. 1, ed. Sasson, 1487-97.
59 Nahum Megged, The Aztecs (Tel Aviv: Dvir, 1999 [Hebrew]), 103.
60 Tacitus, Agricola, ch. 30 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1958), pp. 220-21.
61 A. Fienup-Riordan, The Nelson Island Eskimo: Social Structure and Ritual Distribution (Anchorage: Alaska Pacific University Press, 1983), p. 10.
62 Yuri Pines, ‘Nation States, Globalization and a United Empire – the Chinese Experience (third to fifth centuries BC)’, Historia 15 (1995), 54 [Hebrew].
63 Alexander Yakobson, ‘Us and Them: Empire, Memory and Identity in Claudius Speech on Bringing Gauls into the Roman Senate’, in On Memory: An Interdisciplinary Approach, ed. Doron Mendels (Oxford: Peter Land, 2007), 23-24.
64 W.H.C. Frend, Martyrdom and Persecution in the Early Church (Cambridge: James Clarke & Co., 2008), 536-37.
65 Robert Jean Knecht, The Rise and Fall of Renaissance France, 1483-1610 (London: Fontana Press, 1996), 424.
66 Marie Harm and Hermann Wiehle, Lebenskunde fuer Mittelschulen -Fuenfter Teil. Klasse 5 fuer Jungen (Halle: Hermann Schroedel Verlag, 1942), 152-57.
67 Susan Blackmore, The Meme Machine (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999).
68 David Christian, Maps of Time: An Introduction to Big History (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004), 344-45; Angus Maddison, The World Economy, vol. 2 (Paris: Development Centre of the Organization of Economic Co-operation and Development, 2001), 636; ‘Historical Estimates of World Population’, U.S. Census Bureau, accessed December 10, 2010,
http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/worldhis.html.
69 Maddison, The World Economy, vol. 1, 261.
70 "Gross Domestic Product 2009", The World Bank, Data and Statistics, accessed December 10, 2010, http://siteresources.worldbank.org/DATASTATISTICS/Resources/GDP.pdf
71 Christian, Maps of Time, 141.
72 当代最大的货轮能够承载大约10万吨的货物。在1470年，全球舰队船队加起来，承载量也不超过32万吨。到了1570年，总承载量已达到73万吨。(Maddison, The World Economy, vol. 1, 97).
73 全球规模最大的银行，苏格兰皇家银行（Royal Bank of Scotland），于2007年申报的存款为1.3兆美元，是1500年全球总产值的五倍。参见 ‘Annual Report and Accounts 2008’, The Royal Bank of Scotland, 35, accessed December 10, 2010.
http://files.shareholder.com/downloads/RBS/626570033x0x278481/eb7a003a-5c9b-41ef-bad3-81fb98a6c823/RBS_GRA_2008_09_03_09.pdf
74 Ferguson, Ascent of Money, 185-98.
75 Maddison, The World Economy, vol. 1, 31; Wrigley, English Population
History, 295; Christian, Maps of Time, 450, 452; ‘World Health Statistic Report 2009’, 35-45, World Health Organization, accessed December 10, 2010 http://www.who.int/whosis/whostat/EN_WHS09_Full.pdf.
76 Wrigley, English Population History, 296.
77 ‘England, Interim Life Tables, 1980-82 to 2007-09’, Office for National Statistics, accessed March 22, 2012
http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/publications/re-reference-tables.html?edition=tcm%3A77-61850
78 Michael Prestwich, Edward I (Berkley: University of California Press, 1988), 125-26.
79 Jennie B. Dorman et al., ‘The age-1 and daf-2 Genes Function in a Common Pathway to Control the Lifespan of Caenorhabditis elegans’, Genetics 141:4 (1995), 1399-1406; Koen Houthoofd et al., ‘Life Extension via Dietary Restriction is Independent of the Ins/IGF-1 Signaling Pathway in Caenorhabditis elegans’, Experimental Gerontology 38:9 (2003), 947-54.
80 Shawn M. Douglas, Ido Bachelet, and George M. Church, ‘A Logic-Gated Nanorobot for Targeted Transport of Molecular Payloads’, Science 335:6070 (2012): 831-4; Dan Peer et al., ‘Nanocarriers As An Emerging Platform for Cancer Therapy’, Nature Nanotechnology 2 (2007): 751-60; Dan Peer et al., ‘Systemic Leukocyte-Directed siRNA Delivery Revealing Cyclin D1 as an Anti-Inflammatory Target’, Science 319:5863 (2008): 627-30.
81 Stephen R. Bown, Scurvy: How a Surgeon, a Mariner, and a Gentleman Solved the Greatest Medical Mystery of the Age of Sail (New York: Thomas Dunne Books, St. Matin's Press, 2004); Kenneth John Carpenter, The History of Scurvy and Vitamin C (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986).
82 James Cook, The Explorations of Captain James Cook in the Pacific, as Told by Selections of his Own Journals 1768-1779, ed. Archibald Grenfell Price (New York : Dover Publications, 1971), 16-17; Gananath Obeyesekere, The Apotheosis of Captain Cook: European Mythmaking in the Pacific (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1992), 5; J.C. Beaglehole, ed., The Journals of Captain James Cook on His Voyages of Discovery, vol. 1 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1968), 588.
83 Mark, Origins of the Modern World, 81.
84 Christian, Maps of Time, 436.
85 John Darwin, After Tamerlane: The Global History of Empire since 1405 (London: Allen Lane, 2007), 239.
86 Soli Shahvar, ‘Railroads i. The First Railroad Built and Operated in Persia’, in the Online Edition of Encyclopaedia Iranica, last modified April 7, 2008,
http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/railroads-i;
Charles Issawi, ‘The Iranian Economy 1925-1975: Fifty Years of Economic Development’, in Iran under the Pahlavis, ed. George Lenczowski (Stanford: Hoover Institution Press, 1978), 156.
87 Mark, The Origins of the Modern World, 46.
88 Kirkpatrik Sale, Christopher Columbus and the Conquest of Paradise (London: Tauris Parke Paperbacks, 2006), 7-13.
89 Edward M. Spiers, The Army and Society: 1815-1914 (London: Longman, 1980), 121; Robin Moore, ‘Imperial India, 1858-1914’, in The Oxford History of the British Empire: The Nineteenth Century, vol. 3, ed. Andrew Porter (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), 442.
90 Vinita Damodaran, ‘Famine in Bengal: A Comparison of the 1770 Famine in Bengal and the 1897 Famine in Chotanagpur’, The Medieval History Journal 10:1-2 (2007), 151.
91 Maddison, World Economy, vol. 1, 261, 264; ‘Gross National Income Per Capita 2009, Atlas Method and PPP’, The World Bank, accessed December 10, 2010,
http://siteresources.worldbank.org/DATASTATISTICS/Resources/GNIPC.pdf.
92 这里举的面包店例子在计算上经过简化，并非完全精确。因为银行金库中每存有1元就能贷出10元，如果银行现在有100万美元的存款，其实只能贷出约909000美元，而必须将91000美元留在金库里。但为了方便读者理解，我还是决定将数字简化。此外，银行也并不总是遵守这些法规。
93 Carl Trocki, Opium, Empire and the Global Political Economy (New York: Routledge, 1999), 91.
94 Georges Nzongola-Ntalaja, The Congo from Leopold to Kabila: A People's History (London: Zed Books, 2002), 22.
95 Mark, Origins of the Modern World, 109.
96 Nathan S. Lewis and Daniel G. Nocera, ‘Powering the Planet: Chemical Challenges in Solar Energy Utilization’, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 103:43 (2006), 15731.
97 Kazuhisa Miyamoto (ed.), ‘Renewable Biological Systems for Alternative Sustainable Energy Production’, FAO Agricultural Services Bulletin 128 (Osaka: Osaka University, 1997), chapter 2.1.1, accessed December 10, 2010,
http://www.fao.org/docrep/W7241E/w7241e06.htm#2.1.1percent20solarperc ent20energy;
James Barber, ‘Biological Solar Energy’, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A 365:1853 (2007), 1007.
98 ‘International Energy Outlook 2010’, U.S. Energy Information Administration, 9, accessed December 10, 2010,
http://www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/ieo/pdf/0484(2010).pdf.
99 S. Venetsky, ‘"Silver" from Clay’, Metallurgist 13:7 (1969), 451; Aftalion, Fred, A History of the International Chemical Industry (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1991), 64; A. J. Downs, Chemistry of Aluminum, Gallium, Indium and Thallium (Glasgow: Blackie Academic & Professional, 1993), 15.
100 Jan Willem Erisman et al, ‘How a Century of Ammonia Synthesis Changed the World’ in Nature Geoscience 1 (2008), 637.
101 G. J. Benson and B. E. Rollin (eds.), The Well-Being of Farm Animals: Challenges and Solutions (Ames, IA: Blackwell, 2004); M .C. Appleby, J. A. Mench, and B. O. Hughes, Poultry Behaviour and Welfare (Wallingford: CABI Publishing, 2004); J. Webster, Animal Welfare: Limping Towards Eden (Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 2005); C. Druce and P. Lymbery, Outlawed in Europe: How America Is Falling Behind Europe in Farm Animal Welfare (New York: Archimedean Press, 2002).
102 Harry Harlow and Robert Zimmermann, ‘Affectional Responses in the Infant Monkey’, Science 130:3373 (1959), 421-432; Harry Harlow, ‘The Nature of Love’, American Psychologist 13 (1958), 673-685; Laurens D. Young et al., ‘Early stress and later response to seprate in rhesus monkeys’, American Journal of Psychiatry 130:4 (1973), 400-405; K. D. Broad, J. P. Curley and E. B. Keverne, ‘Mother-infant bonding and the evolution of mammalian social relationships’, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Soceity B 361:1476 (2006), 2199-2214; Florent Pittet et al., ‘Effects of maternal experience on fearfulness and maternal behaviour in a precocial bird’, Animal Behavior (March 2013), In Press-available online at:
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0003347213000547)
103 "National Institute of Food and Agriculture", United States Department of Agriculture, accessed December 10, 2010,
http://www.csrees.usda.gov/qlinks/extension.html.
104 Vaclav Smil, The Earth's Biosphere: Evolution, Dynamics, and Change (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 2002); Sarah Catherine Walpole et al., ‘The Weight of Nations: An Estimation of Adult Human Biomass’, BMC Public Health 12:439 (2012),
http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2458/12/439
105 William T. Jackman, The Development of Transportation in Modern England (London: Frank Cass & co., 1966), 324-27; H. J. Dyos and D.H. Aldcroft, British Transport-An economic survey from the seventeenth century to the twentieth (Leicester: Leicester University Press, 1969), 124-31; Wolfgang Schivelbusch, The Railway Journey: The Industrialization of Time and Space in the 19th Century (Berkeley: Univeristy of California Press, 1986).
106 关于过去这几十年前所未有的和平状态，特别可参见：Steven Pinker, The Better Angels of Our Nature: Why Violence Has Declined (New York: Viking, 2011); Joshua S. Goldstein, Winning the War on War: The Decline of Armed Conflict Worldwide (New York, N.Y.: Dutton, 2011); Gat, War in Human Civilization.
107 ‘World Report on Violence and Health: Summary, Geneva 2002’, World Health Organization, accessed December 10, 2010, http://www.who.int/whr/2001/en/whr01_annex_en.pdf.
之前时代的死亡率请参见: Lawrence H. Keeley, War before Civilization: The Myth of the Peaceful Savage (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996).
108 ‘World Health Report, 2004’, World Health Organization, 124, accessed 10 December, 2010,
http://www.who.int/whr/2004/en/report04_en.pdf.
109 Raymond C. Kelly, Warless Societies and the Origin of War (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2000), 21. See also Gat, War in Human Civilization, 129-31; Keeley, War before Civilization.
110 Manuel Eisner, ‘Modernization, Self-Control and Lethal Violence’, British Journal of Criminology 41:4 (2001), 618-638; Manuel Eisner, ‘Long-Term Historical Trends in Violent Crime’, Crime and Justice: A Review of Research 30 (2003), 83-142; ‘World Report on Violence and Health: Summary, Geneva 2002’, World Health Organization, accessed December 10, 2010,
http://www.who.int/whr/2001/en/whr01_annex_en.pdf; ‘World Health Report, 2004’, World Health Organization, 124, accessed 10 December, 2010,
http://www.who.int/whr/2004/en/report04_en.pdf.
111 Walker and Bailey, ‘Body Counts in Lowland South American Violence,’ 30.
112 若想从心理和生化两种层面来讨论快乐，以下著作是很好的出发点：Jonathan Haidt, The Happiness Hypothesis:Finding Modern Truth in Ancient Wisdom (New York: Basic Books, 2006); R. Wright, The Moral Animal: Evolutionary Psychology and Everyday Life (New York: Vintage Books, 1994); M. Csikszentmihalyi, ‘If We Are So Rich, Why Aren’t We Happy?’, American Psychologist 54:10 (1999): 82127; F. A. Huppert, N. Baylis and B. Keverne, ed., The Science of Well-Being (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005); Michael Argyle, The Psychology of Happiness, 2nd edition (New York: Routledge, 2001); Ed Diener (ed.), Assessing Well-Being: The Collected Works of Ed Diener (New York: Springer, 2009); Michael Eid and Randy J. Larsen (eds.), The Science of Subjective Well-Being (New York: Guilford Press, 2008); Richard A. Easterlin (ed.), Happiness in Economics (Cheltenham: Edward Elgar Pub., 2002); Richard Layard, Happiness: Lessons from a New Science (New York: Penguin, 2005).
