1.1 修辞学的研究对象
1.1A 修辞学的概念
1)英语中的“修辞”(Rhetoric)具有多层的含义,可大体概括为两个方面的意思:从较为狭义或传统的角度上看,“修辞”主要涉及“语言文本”(verbal texts)的各种表现技巧;而从较为广义或现代的角度上看,它涉及任何形式的信息表述(any information expression)。苏格兰修辞学家坎贝尔认为,修辞学必须表现出“理解、想象、激情和意志”(understanding, imagination, passion and will)等四个方面的思维功能, 从而使自己的表述具有说服力。(Keith Brown, 2nd Edition, Vol. 10, 580-581)
2) 我们讲话或写文章,都是出于社会交际的需要。为了达到交际目的,就要考虑怎样说、怎样写,即怎样从客观的环境和对象出发,选择恰当的语言表达方式,力求准确、鲜明、生动,使对方易于理解和乐于接受所要表达的思想。这就是修辞学所要研究的问题。作为语言学的一个学科,修辞学既是研究语言,更是研究语言使用,着重考察人们在交际中的社会言语规律和特点。美国语言学家Brooks和Warren在他们合著的《现代修辞学》(Modern Rhetoric)一书中说:修辞学是有效地使用语言的艺术(Rhetoric is the art of using language effectively)。我们这本书的目的是从写作角度研究修辞,故名为《英语修辞与写作》。
3) 修辞学研究的核心问题是如何优化人的思维及其表现形式,它同心理学、交际学、逻辑学、语用学和社会语言学等等学科有着密切的关系; 修辞和语法也密切相关,是在语法基础上再前进一步。Francis Christensen说:
Grammar maps out the possible; rhetoric narrows the possible down to the desirable and effective.
伍海伦先生在《英文修辞手册》前言中通过一位学者的话点明了语法和修辞之间的区别:
Grammar is the law of language, considered as language; rhetoric is the art of language, considered as thought. Grammar tells what is correct; rhetoric tells what is effective and pleasing.
这说明人们在社会交际中为了有效地使用语言,不仅要遵守语法规则,还要追求语言的使用技巧,既要考虑句子结构对不对,话说得通不通,又要注意话说得是否准确有力,是否鲜明生动,是否协调连贯等。简而言之,就是话说得是否有艺术性,而这种说话的艺术性,要与有效性结合起来,一切技巧的使用都要考虑语境,针对不同场合与不同对象,才能取得更好的交际效果。
1.1B 修辞学的基本内容
1) 关于现代修辞学的内容或研究对象,各家说法不一,前面1.1A提到Keith Brown的看法,从具体内容来讲,有的把修辞学狭义地理解为各种词格的形式与使用,而有的修辞视野却宽泛得多,认为修辞学应该包括下述三个方面:
一是风格学(Stylistics),包括不同的语域(registers)和各种风格变体(stylistic variants)。前者指诸如科技写作、商贸写作及新闻写作等;后者指不同作家、不同学派或不同时代的文学语体等。
二是交际修辞学(Communicative Rhetoric),包括词语选择(choice of words),句式变化(sentence varieties) 和组段谋篇(organization of paragraphs and composition of the whole text)等三个方面,统称之为修辞活动的三大层次(the three levels of rhetorical operations)。
三是审美修辞学(Aesthetic Rhetoric),指通过种种艺术手段,其中包括修辞格(figures of speech)的使用,使自己的说话或文章生动、优美,具有更强的感染力。
2) 本书把交际修辞学和审美修辞学作为现代修辞学的基本内容,以词语选择、句式变化和组段谋篇等修辞活动的三大层次为框架,以审美修辞为手段,即在整个修辞活动中贯彻审美修辞的种种技巧与要求。
我在初版前言中讲到,“修辞和语法、词汇等学科有密切关系,彼此之间有些内容交叉或重叠(overlapping)”,因此在不同学科的著作中会涉及其它有关学科的内容。例如,为了能够准确地选择词语,必须把握词语的意义,也会涉及词语的构成。词语的构成和词语意义的分析属于词汇学的范畴,修辞学中的词语问题仅在词汇学的基础上集中研究词语在使用中表现出来的态度差异或不同的感情色彩,如指示意义与隐含意义(denotative meaning and connotative meaning),褒义与贬义(approving meaning and disapproving meaning),所指意义(referential meaning),社会意义(social meaning)及情感意义(affective meaning)等等,而非简单地重复词汇学的内容。这样处理修辞学与其他相关学科的关系,目的在于让读者既能对语言使用中的种种情况获得一个比较完整的印象,又不脱离本学科。
1.1C 现代修辞学的发展趋势
1) 修辞这门学问起源于公元前4世纪,即希腊亚里士多德时期。当时它仅指口头表达技巧,相当于我们今天所说的“辩论”(argumentation)。17世纪末期英国哲学家John Locke曾把修辞称作“演说术”(the science of oratory),是“说话得体、优美和有力的艺术”(the art of speaking with propriety, elegance, and force)。因此,在希腊语、拉丁语、法语、西班牙语以及意大利语中,rhetoric这个词的词根都是“说话”的意思。
随着19世纪印刷业的高度发展,人们也越来越普遍地采用了书面交际手段,于是修辞的原则和方法也进入了各种书面语体。
现代语言学的迅速发展推动了现代修辞学的发展,修辞学研究呈现两种主要趋势:一是着重研究修辞手段的体系,称之为语言修辞学;二是着重研究话语中的修辞现象,称之为话语修辞学,或言语修辞学。本书两者兼有,但非简单地合并,而是以前者为基础,以后者为重心,以提高学习者的使用能力为目的。
2) 我国的汉语修辞研究源远流长,近代有陈望道先生的《修辞学发凡》(1932年)和吕叔湘、朱德熙先生的《语法修辞讲话》(1952年)两座里程碑。但我国的英语修辞研究则起步甚晚。虽然上世纪60年代初王佐良先生就曾撰文论述英语修辞在外语教学中的地位和作用,但政治运动使这方面的研究停顿了近20年,直到改革开放以后才真正得到开展。据不完全统计,1981—2009年间我国学者共发表论文150余篇,出版专著和词典20多部,把我国的英语修辞研究不断推上新的台阶。在这大量的修辞学著述中,有的评介了西方古典修辞学和现代修辞学,有的专论词格,有的把修辞学和语用学、认知语言学等结合起来加以研究,形成跨学科研究成果。中国修辞学会会长、我国著名语言学家、上海外国语大学教授王德春先生的《现代修辞学》在继承传统修辞学的基础上构建了现代修辞学的理论框架,并对其主要内容做了全面的概括和生动的描述。
不少大学已开设了英语修辞学课程,并开展这方面的专题研究。
3) 当前我国的英语修辞研究主要在下述三个方面展开:一是继续对传统修辞学和现代修辞学派进行研究,继承和发扬英语修辞学的优良传统,同时吸收现代修辞学派的新观念、新思路和新方法,改进和提高我们的研究和教学;二是把英语修辞同汉语修辞加以对比研究,既促进文化交流,又利用汉语优势促进英语修辞研究;三是把英语修辞同其他学科联系起来,如认知学与修辞学,心理学与修辞学,交际学与修辞学,话语学与修辞学等等,从而引出种种跨学科研究的新课题、新成果。本书的主旨是从学习英语写作的实际需要出发,系统扼要地介绍各个修辞活动层次的要求和技巧,并结合语境论述修辞中应注意的问题。
1.2 修辞学的研究方法
1.2A 学习修辞与写作的意义
1) 有人认为,现代社会的有声联络十分方便,不用学习修辞与写作了。这是一种片面的看法。有声传播技术的发展确实减少了某些方面的写作需求,如人们通过电话交流信息,书信往来就少了,但在另外一些领域内写作却比以往更加重要,如技术报告和新闻报道,即使电视新闻也多是先写好文字稿而后播出的。有些工作中不一定非用写作不可,然而能以文字形式表达自己的观点仍不失为一技之长。
此外,会写作也是一个人成熟的一种标志和良好素质的一种体现。不论当律师、会计师、教师、工程师或普通工作者,虽然不像作家那样一定要写诗歌、小说等,但若写点小文章也难以提笔,甚至连一般的计划、报告、小结或说明书、介绍信之类的应用文也写不好,那显然是不符合文明社会成员的基本要求的。而要写文章,就要不同程度地涉及修辞与写作技巧。
2) 也有人以为,只要模仿不同的文章格式并能按照语法规则把句子写正确就够了。这种看法也不全面。客观情况千差万别,不可能把固定的某些格式到处套用;诚然,写出符合语法规则的正确句子是必需的,但不能仅仅停留在这一点上。前面1.1A已讨论到语法与修辞的关系,说明修辞是在语法正确的基础上如何进一步使用语言技巧,提高交际效果。这里还需说明,学习了修辞与写作的基本技巧和规律,虽然不能说就等于会写好文章了,但对写好文章肯定是有帮助的,若忽视它们,则不可能把文章写好。
3)口语中是否用得着修辞技巧呢?答案是肯定的。俗话说某某人“能言善辩”,某某人“出口成章”,均指其人十分善于辞令,会说话。我们在口头交际时首先要清楚应当“说什么”,“怎样说”,做到话随旨遣,又要根据具体谈话对象,做到因人而异;什么地方应当详尽,什么地方应当简略,等等,这些都是涉及修辞技巧方面的问题。
1.2B 学习修辞与写作的方法
1) 结合实践学习。修辞学是社会交际实践的产物,也只有密切结合社会交际实践才能掌握好修辞技巧。教师的课堂讲授,只能为学生提供一把研究修辞的钥匙,学生还必须通过阅读才能巩固课堂知识。不仅如此,还要在说话、写文章和进行翻译时有意识地利用各种修辞手段来提高自己的语言使用技能,以取得更好的交际效果。有个留美学生曾以A Way Out for the Homeless Couples为题写了一篇文章。在修辞课上讨论到择语的准确性后,他想到文中的homeless一词有待斟酌:虽然在美国英语中home可以和house同义,但一般说来,house主要指住房,而home除指住处以外,还往往包括家庭生活;由于文中所谈的是青年成家后的住房问题,故houseless一词较为恰当。
2) 针对语境使用。Patrick Hartwell说:“修辞是适于某种语境和出于某种目的所做的选择。”(Hartwell, Patrick, Open to Language)如果离开语境就难以确定某种表达方式是否符合修辞要求。例如根据一般修辞要求,被动结构应避免使用,因为它需要增加助动词,不符合用词简炼的原则,而且也不如主动结构那样明确有力,但有时为了突出受事者,或为了强调通常情况下不作主位的句子成份,则应使用被动结构,例如:
The tree was struck by lightening.
(Thomas S. Kane)
Out of the windows could be seen three hickory trees placed irregularly in a meadow that was resplendent in spring time green.
(Stephen Crane)
又如,想要别人把门关上时,可以有多种表达方式,除了生硬地命令式只适用于某些特殊场合外,通常还可以用下面的某种说法:
A) Close the door, dear.
B) Would you be so kind to close the door?
C) It's a bit cold here. Can you close the door?
D) Would you like to close the door for me?
E) I would be glad if you could close the door.
F) Would you mind closing the door?
上述A、B两句用于家庭成员或好友之间,属于亲昵的表达方式;D、E两句突出对对方的尊重或客气,适用于对社会地位高于自己或与自己相同的人说话,属于婉转的表达方式;C句介乎两者之间,可用于其他两种场合。当然也可选择其他的表达方式,包括“Would you mind ...?”不过用这个句式请别人做(或停止做)某事时,很可能带有“贬”的色彩,是不满或甚至是愤怒情绪的一种表达,例如“Would you mind stop making so much noise?”等。
3) 注意母语的影响
语言学家Dorothy M. Guinn和Daniel Marder说:“Rhetorical operations are patterns of thought that direct and order our perceptions, ideas, and feelings.” (Guinn, Dorothy M. & Daniel Marder, A Spectrum of Rhetoric.)。
不同民族的人从小养成了独特的思维方式,这种方式反映到修辞活动中,便形成修辞的民族特色。我们在研究英语修辞时要经常注意母语的影响。例如汉语的词语组合中有一种表示强调的格式,如“确切的事实”、“参差不齐”,其中“确切”强调“事实”,“参差”修饰“不齐”,修饰成分同被修饰成分的含义有重复,但并不使人感到别扭,这是汉语,若是在英语中这样写,用“true facts”,“irregularly uneven”这样的组合形式,就不对头了。
刘宓庆教授说:“以汉语为母语的人注重思维形态上的主体性,认为任何行为都只可能是人这个行为主体完成的,因此行为主体‘尽在不言之中’。这种思维风格(方式)使汉语句子的语态(主动式或被动式)呈隐含式,形成受事的施事化。”这同英语中施事、受事(被动式)并用的表现法形成对照。为此,类似“我们改革开放政策取得了很大成绩”这样的汉语句子,内容和形式都是站得住的,但若以同样的句式套用到英语,即以“Our policies of reform and opening to the outside world”做主语,后接谓语“have won great successes”,那就不符合英语的思维逻辑,而应采用类似下面的表达方式:
We have won great successes for our reform and open policies.
Great successes have been won for our reform and open policies.
练习一 (Exercise One)
I. Preview Questions:
1. What have Brooks and Woolen said about rhetoric in their book Modern Rhetoric?
2. What have you learned about the difference between grammar and rhetoric?
3. Do you agree with John Locke that rhetoric is the science of oratory?
4. Do you think it important to study rhetoric? Why?
5. What do you think are the effective approaches to studying rhetoric?
II. Read the following passages and then do the multiple choice exercises:
1. What is Rhetoric? Is it merely concerned with word choices, figures of speech, topic sentences, and transitions from paragraph to paragraph? Does it merely have to do with outlining a discussion and studying the principles of unity, coherence, and emphasis? Certainly it is concerned with those things, but they are not studied for their own sake.
They are studied because it is through language that we discover the world and ourselves. They are studied, too, because they contribute to the effective use of language — and thus to effective living.
Rhetoric, more specifically, is the art of using language effectively.
2. The human being may be called the animal with language. Upon a little reflection, we can see that only by means of language can mankind create and transmit the body of concepts, attitudes, values, and skills that constitute civilization. Only by language can we carry the past with us, understand the present, and project the future. Only by language can we have a clear notion of ourselves as individuals. “I think, therefore I am,” as the philosopher Descartes put it. And only by language can we forge the bonds of a society — a society as distinguished from some sort of instinctual hero or swarm.
3. Rhetoric involves practicing the most effective means or strategies for informing or persuading an audience. All writing, even technical or business writing, is “creative.” Deciding what to write, how to write it, how best to get your reader's attention, and how to inform or persuade your reader requires creativity and imagination. Every major requires the skills that writing courses teach: exploring new ideas, learning concepts and processes, communicating with others, and finding fresh or creative solutions to problems.
Now make the best choice and be prepared to explain why you made it.
1) Our study of rhetoric should__________.
(a) aim at informing or persuading our readers
(b) enable us acquire the body of concepts, attitudes, values and skills
(c) be like the study of an art for its own sake
(d) contribute to the effective use of language
2) What you think did Descartes mean by saying “I think, therefore I am”?
(a) He thinks he is right.
(b) He is a human being because he can think with a language.
(c) He believes that he is a philosopher.
(d) As he can think, he becomes a philosopher.
3) Why is language so important?
(a) Because language helps human beings to communicate with each other and forge the human society.
(b) Only language can create a clear notion for every person.
(c) Without language, human beings will become animals as well.
(d) It is language that enables human beings to communicate with others and find fresh or creative solutions to problems.
III. Go over the following passages and fill in each blank with a suitable word or phrase:
1. Traditional grammarians have always been (1)____________meaning, but meaning of a rather narrow kind: verb tenses, clausal relationships, kinds of nouns (common and proper, abstract and concrete), and so on. Descriptive grammarians set aside the problem of meaning in order to concentrate on observable forms and how they occur with one another. They talk in terms of grammatical (2)____________that can be abstracted from lexical meaning, of the grammatical meaning of ‘Twas brilling, and the slithy toves / Did gyre and gimble in the wabe .... More recently, however, transformational linguists have turned back to lexical meaning because they have set as their task a description of how semantic content is “mapped” onto syntactic and phonological forms.
2. It was Aristotle who, in the 4th century B. C., first defined (3)____________as the art of persuasion. In Athens, then the center of western civilization, great orators, by exercising their rhetoric, gained following and support, and eventually, political power.
With development of printing, rhetoric came to be (4)____________the ability to write or speak well in ornate, showy language. Today there are still people who equate rhetoric to the adoption of stylistic devices or the use of figures of speech in speech or writing.
Nowadays, however, with the quickened tempo of life, the increased stress on efficiency and efficacy, and the ascendance of the idea that languages are means of communication, more and more people have come (5)____________rhetoric as the art of effective communication. Furthermore, rhetoric tends to be connected more with writing than with speech, and more with prose writing (6)____________with verse.
IV. Passages for further reading:
Writing can change your life. It can help you deepen your understanding of yourself as well as achieve the goals you set for yourself. It can help you make sense of the information that assaults you every day and present ideas so that others take you seriously. And it can broaden your world by enabling you to communicate effectively with people you have never met.
Despite the tremendous advantages of writing well, many people persuade themselves that they can never learn to write, because they believe that writing is a talent they were denied at birth. People who think in these terms are unlikely to write well, because they lack the motivation to take their writing seriously. It is true that some people learn to write more easily than others because they have a certain aptitude for it or because they have been encouraged by parents, friends, or good teachers. But to a large extent writing is a skill that that can be learned by anyone willing to take the trouble. Believe that you will fail, and you are likely to fail. Believe that you can succeed, and you will have begun to succeed. It will certainly take time and effort to write successfully, for writing involves hard work; but you will find that this investment will pay rich dividends.
(Robert Keith Miller, 2005:1)