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第三章 写文章的步骤与要领

作者:黄任 当前章节:11176 字 更新时间:2026-6-23 06:18

3.1 写文章的基本步骤

3.1A 三个基本步骤

1) 酝酿和提纲。要写出一篇文章,通常得有一个酝酿过程。这个过程可能很长,即经过长时间的思考研究;也可能很短,只需“眉头一皱”的工夫。有时要写篇东西,不知写些什么好,或从哪里写起。在这种情况下,不妨就一系列有关问题加以思考,如:

1. What happened?

2. When did it happen?

3. Where did it happen?

4. Who did it?

5. What does it look like?

6. What are its characteristics?

7. What impressions does it make?

8. What are some typical cases or examples of it?

9. How did it happen?

10. What makes it work?

11. How is it made?

12. Why did it happen?

13. What caused it?

14. What does it cause?

15. What are its effects?

16. How is it related to something else?

17. How is it like other things?

18. How is it different from other things?

19. What are its parts or types?

20. How can its parts or types be separated or grouped?

21. Do its parts or types fit into a logical order?

22. What categories can its parts or types be arranged into?

23. On what bases can it be categorized?

24. How can it be defined? What is it?

25. How does it resemble the members of its class?

26. How does it differ from other members of its class?

27. What are its limits?

应当强调,上述问题都是为了打开思路,作为酝酿文章过程中的启示,并不是要对每个问题机械地回答,也并不意味着回答了这些问题就写出文章来了。

还应说明,应根据自己文章的主旨、对象、场合等灵活地使用上述问题,因为它们提出的角度不同,适用于不同的写作需要:1-4用于叙述(Narration),5-7用于描写(Description),8用于例证(Exemplification),9-11用于说明过程(Process),12-16用于说明原因和结果(Cause and Effect),17-18用于比较和对照(Comparison and Contrast),19-23用于分类(Classification and Division),24-27用于定义(Definition)。

思路打开以后,还可将所得到的内容记录成提纲。提纲有两种形式:

一为“草纲”(Scratch outline),是作者随手记下的思考要点,仅为作者个人参考之用。

二为“正式提纲”(Formal outline),是经过作者归纳、整理后的提纲,它更加有条理,不仅作者本人,其他人看了也可能明白内容要点以及它们之间的主次、先后关系。正式提纲中通常使用数码和字母排列出内容要点,如:

2) 起草与修改

一般说来,写文章都需要打草稿。思路打开以后,应该大胆地写。现在一般人都习惯于用电脑写,但有时还需用手写,例如作文考试。若用手写时,最好隔行,留出必要的边空,以便对草稿进行修改。一篇草稿完成以后,如时间允许,可先把它放置一边,几小时或甚至一两天后再去修改。这样一种“冷处理”会使作者更冷静、更敏锐地发现草稿中的问题,把它修改得更好。写长文章时,也可在完成一部分或一个章节的起草之后回头通读一遍,作些必要的修改,或标出需要进一步修改的地方,待整篇文章的草稿完成之后再统一处理。

修改时应注意下述几个方面:

首先,检查文中的基本观点是否正确,事实是否可靠。自己可以设想从读者的角度提出质疑,或请同学、朋友过目后加以评论,最后由作者本人认真考虑,决定是否要修改以及怎样修改。

其次,检查文中的段落安排及内容是否符合整体要求,对薄弱环节应加强,繁琐部分应割爱,进行必要的删节。

第三,检查文章的开头和结尾是否恰当、有力。开头能否吸引读者?结尾能否给读者回味?

第四,检查有无病句、不必要的重复或使用不当的其他句式,及时加以修改或调整。

第五,检查有无用错或使用欠妥的词语,有电脑时可利用电子词典检查拼写。

最后,审视文章的标题,尽可能加以改进。

3) 定稿与誊清

人们(尤其是较年轻的人)翻译好一个文件之后会请有经验的老翻译工作者审阅,一篇报纸或杂志文章发稿之前也需要主编过目,所谓“审阅”和“过目”也叫做定稿。我们这里所说的“定稿”是由文章作者本人进行,指作者全面完成了前面讲到的六项修改要求,可以正式成文了。

定稿之后还需要誊清。若是在电脑屏幕上起草和修改,最后打印出来的就是誊清稿;但手写时因为经过修改,草稿不易辨认,必须誊清后才能交老师批阅,或送出版部门发表。誊清过程中仍需要作者采取认真仔细的态度,不但要防止誊写错漏,还应注意原稿中有无差错,并做到格式规范(参见3.2B)。

3.1B 几个步骤之间的关系及最后检查

1) 酝酿是写好文章的基础,而提纲是反映酝酿成果的一种好形式。许多学生在考试中碰到作文时,通常先针对题目(包括有关提示、要求等)思索片刻,在草稿纸上迅速列出几道提纲(若时间允许时还打点草稿),然后有条不紊地写出来。反之,也有的学生见到作文就挥笔疾书,写不下去时再涂涂改改,或甚至把整段划掉重写,给人一种“慌不择路”的印象,而这样的作文效果一般不理想。

2) 不少学生作文时喜欢一挥而就,不愿意打草稿。有的甚至问:“既然能一次成文,为什么一定要打草稿?”诚然,草稿并不是所有人写文章的必经步骤,作家和翻译家大都是一次成文(联合国机构的笔译必须一次成稿,要求又快又准)。然而,对于做作文练习的学生来说,草稿又是必要的,前面3.1A讲到,思路有了,就要放手去写,把酝酿好的内容尽快写出来;由于是草稿,不必仔细考虑词语的选择(参见第4-5章),甚至个别拼法无把握时也可以凭自己的印象先写下来,同时可用下横线或在旁边空白处打个记号,等修改时查对。由于这样的草稿是在酝酿的基础上、甚至是依据提纲(或腹稿)写出来的,因而具有一定的质量,而且随着练习的增多,水平不断提高,草稿就基本上符合正式稿的要求,“一次成文”的能力就逐步具备了。

3) 一个画家作一幅肖像画时,必须先有构思,然后抓住脑海里酝酿成的形象勾勒出大体轮廓(或草图),再加工、修改、补充、完善,最后绘出整个画面。作文中的修改既要在起草的基础上进行,又不是同起草截然分开的另一道工序,因为在起草过程中也会顺手作某些修改或补充,草稿或其中的一部分完成后还须回过头来系统地加以修改。事实上,一个写作者的态度愈是严肃认真,愈是觉得有修改的必要。

4) 前面讲到的修改过程也可以看做是定稿的过程,修改到一定的程度,作者满意了,稿子就算定下来了,从这个意义上讲,定稿又是修改的必然结果。如果时间允许,作者经过初步修改后,把稿子再放到一边,过一段时间再进行最后一次修改,或者说进行定稿。当然,也并不是说定稿以后就不可以再改动了。对一篇文章来说,修改是没有止境的,即使在誊清过程中还会发现问题并加以修改,做到精益求精。

5) 这里讲到的“最后检查”,是指稿子誊清之后作者还应认真再读一遍,包括检查誊清过程中可能出现的差错,或者电脑排版上出现的新问题。此外,还应检查页码、署名等方面有无错漏或不清之处。

3.2 写文章的几个要领

3.2A 注重内容,避免两种倾向

1) 内容是文章的主体,又是文章的灵魂,言之无物的东西算不上好文章。为此,本章开头讲到写文章的基本步骤时首先强调要有酝酿,要打开思路,并建议使用提纲,把思考到的内容加以条理化,以便更好地把内容表达出来。有人认为,写文章就要提起笔来自由发挥,用不着顾及什么步骤,因为那样会束缚思想、限制内容。其实这是一种误解。我们也曾听说,某位诗人触景生情,一首好诗脱口而出;或某位作家灵机一动,一篇文章一气呵成。其实,即便是这样,也是诗人和作家观察生活的结果,脑海里早有某种酝酿,在某种触发下写出了东西,这好比“十月怀胎,一朝分娩”。对于我们青年学生来说,生活经验不够,写作基本功不够,应当在一般规律指导之下练就写作本领。

2) 这里所说的避免两种倾向,是指文章的内容展不开或者中心不突出。在笔者接触的美国学生中,写文章时通常能开门见山,中心内容突出,但毛病是三言两语,几句话写下来,文章就结束了。而东方学生似乎相反,写的东西往往较长,但兜圈子的话多,读者难以抓住作者的主题。我们还有的学生一见写文章就感到“话不投机”似的,既写不出多的话,又写不到点子上。这是由于思路没有打开的缘故,或者说脑筋没有开动。此外,也还有个知识积累的问题。古人说:“读得多胸中有主,写得多笔下生花”;“熟读唐诗三百首,不会写诗也会吟”。多读书,多积累知识,多观察生活,是写好文章的必要准备。这对我们学习写作是大有好处的。

3.2B 遵循规则,力求规范

1) 这里所说的规则,指拼写、移行、大小写等。试看下面两个不合规则要求的句子:

a. last wednesday they argued for hours about the best place for a holiday.

b. Last Wednesday, they spent an hour in arguement about where to go for a holiday.

上述a句句首字母l和表示周日(星期三)的为首字母w均应大写,Last Wednesday后应加逗号,句尾应加上句号,b句中的arguement拼写错误,where不应移行。这些都违反了英语的基本规则,因而未达到规范要求。

2) 关于拼写、移行、大小写等规则,一般教科书和语法书中均有说明。这里需要指出的是,不同书中的移行规则可能不尽相同,或详略不一。如果使用电脑,其中编辑程序会自动处理移行问题;如果用手写或用打字机,则首先记住两点:一是尽量避免移行,二是不得已要移行而又非确有把握从哪个字母开始移时,最好查对词典:凡中间有黑圆点的字,可从黑点后边的字母往下行移,有几个黑点则表示有几种不同的移法,没有黑点的字不可移行,如:change(不能移行),change·a·ble(两种移法),change·ful(一种移法),change·a·bil·i·ty(四种移法),等。

3.2C 提高修辞技巧,写出个人风格

1) 提高修辞技巧和写出个人风格体现了继承和发展的关系,或者叫做学习和创新。有人问:是不是每个会写文章的人都系统地学过修辞技巧?显然,实际情况并不一定如此,但我们可以说,每个会写文章或善于辞令的人都肯定具有较高的修辞涵养。有这样一个例子:一个男青年乘公交车站在一个女青年的后边。突然遇到急刹车,男青年朝前踉跄一步,碰了女青年一下。那女子很不高兴,白一眼道:“德性!”男青年感到委屈,但未以牙还牙地回骂,而是轻声辩白:“不,这是惯性!”说得女青年扑哧一笑。一字之差,赢得了令人满意的效果。这是为什么?因为使用了修辞学上的“仿化”或“换语”(分别见第13章和第14章),既得体,又诙谐。有些人不一定上过修辞学课,甚至未读过修辞学著作,但善于从其他读物和别人的言谈中学习各种说话和写文章的技巧,因而不论出口的话或出手的文章都显得很有教养。

2) 俗语云:青出于蓝而胜于蓝。不论绘画、武术、戏曲各界,都有高徒出自名师,然又自成一派,与师长齐名,甚至超过师长。这些徒弟的共同点在于:他们一方面很好地继承了师长的技艺,另一方面又有所发展,形成了自己的独特风格。我们在本书中讨论的修辞技巧,有些是大家熟悉的,甚至从小就学会了(如我曾听到两个美国小姐妹用夸张形容口渴:“I'm dying of thirst!” “I can drink the whole sea!”),也有些是比较生疏的,或者只知其然而不知其所以然。如能进一步加以系统化、条理化,就会更加得心应手地运用,并逐步在实践中形成自己的风格。

英语中的风格有不同含义,如某个知名作家的风格(Hemingway's style),某种特殊文体(an academic style)等,但这里需要强调一点:风格不是表面的装饰,而是内在美的体现;谁能根据主题、对象和场合灵活得体地应用各种修辞规律和手法,把话说得打动听众,把文章写得吸引读者,收到良好的效果,那就算是有了自己的风格。

练习三 (Exercise Three)

I. Preview Questions:

1. Do you make an outline when you write an essay?

2. Can you tell a “scratch outline” from a “formal outline”?

3. What do you think of the six points in revising an essay?

4. Do you think it necessary to make a draft in writing an essay?

5. Have you ever come across the problem in writing that you find it difficult to develop your ideas or expound your main point?

6. What norms do you think should be followed in preparing a fair copy of one's writing?

7. How is one's style in writing related with his/her command of rhetorical techniques?

II. Fill in each blank with a suitable word:

Instead of “stages”, researchers today (1)____________as Gordon Rohman and James Britton tend to speak of the “phases” of composition: planning, drafting, and revising. (Some people break (2)____________into “rewriting” and “editing”, or they use one of these terms instead.)

The problem with “steps” and “stages” to explain the writing process is that writing isn't linear, (though reading is.) It's recursive; like the “phases” of the moon, its phases can be repeated. But writing isn't circular, either. It goes back and forth, like alternating currents. We plan, we (3)____________, we revise, we plan again, we write ...

Planning is the “prewriting” phase of the process. In it, you look for a subject to write about, conceive ideas about that (4) ____________, gather information, and begin to select details from a growing mass of data. Because it is partly unconscious and so requires time for percolating, this is the phase that gets slighted most when you start a paper the night before it is due. (Well, come to think of it, so does drafting — and maybe revising, (5) ____________.)

The planning phase is traditionally considered the finding phase of composition; its main business is to “invent” a subject in the root sense of “to come upon”. The main (6)____________of the second, or drafting, phase is presentation. Here the writer orders what she / he is discovering into a form comprehensible to other people. But she / he goes on discovering, too. In the (7)____________phase, revision, the writer is not so much ordering as reordering what she / he has (8)____________say.

III. Go over the following passages and decide whether each of the statements is true (T) or false (F).

Two students, identified by writing theorist Robert Brooke only as Writer A and Writer B, respond in opposing ways to what he calls “the paradox of control” in writing. What paradox do you suppose he has in mind? Who do you think, A or B, can possibly resolve it and how will he do so?

Writer A: I'm having trouble with my writing. I'm stuck; I can't figure out what I've got to say. I'm frustrated. I'm a lousy writer.

Writer B: I'm in the fun part of writing. At the moment, I don't know what I've got to say but I know if I just give myself time to wander around, to explore what I'm thinking, I'll end up with something insightful and powerful. Right now I just have to let go and let my writing do its thing.

Statements:

1. The word “lousy” is an adjective meaning “low in quality and quantity”, or simply (infml) “bad”, “poor”, “mean”, “disgusting”, etc. as “a lousy meal”, “a lousy holiday”, “to feel lousy-ill”, etc. According to the context in the above passages, we can say that both A and B are lousy writers.

2. The “paradox of control” he has in mind refers to the situation in writing when one does have something to say but hasn't formed a proper way to say it. B is probably to resolve it by giving himself time to express what he's thinking.

IV. Further reading: Go over the following passage and the notes, and try to apply what you have learned to your own experience.

Students who read for pleasure, whatever they read — science fiction, mysteries, the daily paper — have a better grasp of what written prose looks like. They have absorbed most of the conventions of punctuation, without being able to repeat the “rules”;they have a vision of how conventional spelling looks without doing drills; they understand, at least, that paragraphs are indented. In the same way, students who examine their own writing, no matter how short or simple it seems, to make sure they have made a clear point, that that point is supported with reasons, will be closer to becoming critical readers.

Note to the above passage:

1. The quotation of Elisabeth McPherson is taken from Thomas Cooley's The Norton Guide to Writing, p.60.

2. For many writers, reading is a more vital source of ideas than their own adventures. Since people learn complicated skills from other people, it figures that writers are also readers. For example, the table of contents of a big city newspaper is in face an index to the broad categories of human experience: arts, autos, books, business, fads, movies, deaths, music, political opinions, public events, etc.

3. Great writers are, generally speaking, critical readers. Some writers read widely and take extensive notes; others read a few favorite sources over and over, often memorizing the rhythms of passages they like.

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