（Bertrand Russell）
人生应该像一条河——开始是涓涓细流，仅局限于两岸之间，未免狭窄；然后奔放地冲过巨石，翻越瀑布，慢慢地河面变得开阔，两岸后移，水面更趋平静，于是最后毫不犹豫地与大海融为一体，毫无苦楚地丧失自己的存在。
2） 在进行劝说时，通过人们熟悉的事例和易于接受的常理启发别人明白什么是应该做的，什么是不应该做的，以及怎样做才能得到更好的结果等。
Before you reprehend another, take heed you are not culpable in what you go about to reprehend. He who cleanses a blot with blotted fingers makes a greater blur.
（Quarles）
在指责别人之前，必须注意自己不要犯所要指责的毛病。用脏手擦污迹，只会把污迹弄得更大。
Intellectual assimilation takes time. The mind is not to be enriched as a coal barge is loaded. Whatever is precious in a cargo is carefully on board and carefully placed. Whatever is delicate and fine must be received delicately, and its place in the mind thoughtfully assigned.
（Arlo Bates）
吸收知识要从从容容，不能像驳船装煤那样来填塞大脑。我们应小心地把珍贵的货物搬上船，并谨慎地安放好。吸取精华时必须敏感，而且要在头脑中加以周密安排。（借驳船装货从“反”设比，以反“托”正，喻吸收知识不应囫囵吞枣，而应鉴别精华，分门别类，存入大脑。）
In rivers the water that you touch is the last of that has passed and the first of that which comes: so with time present.
（Leonardo Da Vinci）
你在河流中感触到的水，既是最后的逝者，又是最先的来者；眼前光阴亦是如此。
3） 在描述客观情况和介绍事物发展过程时，能化平淡为生动，变纷繁为简明。例如：
The cultivation of a hobby and new forms of interest is ... not a business that can be undertaken in a day or swiftly improved by a mere command of the will. The growth of alternative mental interests is a long process. The seeds must be carefully chosen; they must fall on good ground; they must be sedulously tended, if the vivifying fruits are to be at hand when needed.
（Winston Churchill）
培养业余爱好和新的兴趣……不是一朝一夕之功，也不单凭意志便可奏效。培养第二精神爱好是个漫长的过程。如果要使那给人带来活力的果实在需要之时能信手摘来，就必须细心选择种子，且播于沃土之中，并予以辛勤照料。
9.1C Allegory的使用
1） Allegory一词源于希腊语allegoria，意为speaking figuratively，往往利用象征性的虚构人物和情节表示作者对某种人类行为、品性、感情等的看法，这种手法称之为symbolism allegory，例如像班扬（Bunyan）在《天路历程》（Pilgrim's Progress）和但丁（Dante）在《神曲》（Divine Comedy）中那样使用拟人化或象征手法引导人们去认识罪恶性的本质和必然造成的精神后果。《天路历程》中的主人公Christian “trudged through the Slough of Despond”，其实Christian并非真人，the Slough of Despond也非真正地点，只不过表示一名基督徒的灵魂在人世间的一次经历。《神曲》中的但丁虽是诗人自己，但领着他游览地狱的却是罗马诗人Vergil的幽灵。
布莱克（Blake）的《先知书》（Prophetic Books），勃特勒（Butler）的《乌有乡》（Erewhon），刘易斯（Lewis）的《朝圣的回归》（The Pilgrim's Regress），奥威尔（O'well）的《兽园》（Animal Farm）等，和《天路历程》及《神曲》一样，都可看作是讽喻作品，或叫做讽喻的扩展形式。英语文学中的劝诫故事、劝世戏和醒世诗等，统称为“训教文学”（Didactic Literature），像Henry Brooke在Fool of Quality中强调道德训练重于体能训练，Thomas Day在Sanford and Merton中劝导青年人不仅应具备各项基本美德，还要学习天文、生物、地理、政治经济学等知识。还有诗人Ella Wheeler Wilcox的名句“Laugh and the world Laughs with you; weep and you weep alone.”等，都属这类型的文学作品，其中许多为人处世之道至今仍不失其现实意义。
2） 讽喻作品中的许多情节来源于古典神话传说，被作者用来借古喻今。斯威夫特（Swift）是著名的英国讽喻作家，他写的《一只澡盆的故事》（The Tale of a Tub）和《格利佛游记》（Guliver's Travels）都是脍炙人口的讽喻名作。《格利佛游记》中的“小人国”、“大人国”等情节是影射当时英国社会的专制政治、阴谋诡计和宗教迫害，包括大端派和小端派的宗教斗争。
3） 英语中许多谚语和格言都是讽喻的精彩范例，它们来自长短不等的故事。例如：“All that glisters is not gold.”这句谚语出自莎士比亚的《威尼斯商人》（The Merchant of Venice）：富家女鲍西娅的父亲在遗嘱中规定女儿的求婚者必须在金、银、铅3只盒子中挑选一个，谁挑中了其中藏有鲍西娅的小像的盒子，谁就可娶他的女儿。求婚者摩洛哥亲王打开他所挑到的盒子时，发现里面是一个死人的骷髅，空眼眶中有张纸条，上面写着的话就是这条谚语，说明外表美丽的东西不一定都有价值，这和另一条谚语“Never trust appearances.”异曲同工。
9.2 Metonymy和Synecdoche
9.2A Metonymy和Synecdoche的含义与形式
1） Metonymy译作“换喻”，Synecdoche译作“提喻”。
这两种辞格十分相近，其共同点是不直接说出所指对象的名称，而采取某种替代形式；它们的区别在于：Metonymy是借与某事物密切相关的东西来表示该事物，因此亦称之为“借代”，而Synecdoche是以某事物的局部表示整体，或反过来以整体表示局部。例如人在幼年离不开摇篮，因而借用the cradle表示“婴儿时期”，这就是Metonymy：
He must have been spoilt from the cradle.
又如：“头”和“手”等是人体的部分，用它们表示整个人，则是常见的Synecdoche形式：
More hands（=working men） are needed at the moment.
We had dinner at ten dollars a head（=each person）.
2） 注意这两种辞格与其他比喻形式之间的区别，试比较：
Greece was the cradle of Western culture. — Metaphor
A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush. — Analogy
9.2B Metonymy的使用
1） 不像明喻、隐喻等比喻形式那样利用不同类对象的相似或类同点构成比较，而是利用两个对象之间的某种联系来唤起别人的联想，从而避免生硬直说。例如，通过讲某物的常用盛器，让别人联想到被盛的东西，或用某地名指那里的人。例如：
The kettle is boiling.
— The water in the kettle is boiling.
Italy cannot be vanished in warfare nor Greece in studies.
— Italians cannot be vanished in warfare nor Greeks in studies.
通过讲工具或所有物，让别人联想到经常使用该工具的人或该物的所有者：
The pen is stronger than the sword.
— Those who use the pen have more influence than those who use the sword. / The officials have more say than the officers.
Land belonging to the crown occupied the best part of the country.
— Land belonging to the monarch occupied ...
通过讲特征或特定环境，让人联想到具有该特征或在该环境下的人：
The grey hair should be respected.
— The old/aged should be respected.
What is learned in the cradle is carried to the grave.
— Things learned in childhood will not be forgotten till death.
Having finished the law school, he was called to the Bar.
— ... he became a lawyer （Am E） / a barrister （Br E）.
2） 借用历史上或传说中的典故与现实生活中某种人或事之间的相似性来暗示说话者的观点，达到借古喻今或借此言彼的目的。这类metonymy也称之为“引喻”。例如：
Every government should attend to cleaning its own Augean stables.
相传国王奥吉尼斯的牛舍内养牛3000头，30年未打扫，故Augean stables成了肮脏的代名词。这里用来影射各国政府都有腐败现象，应注意克服。
Bacchus has drowned more than Neptune but has killed fewer than Mars.
Bacchus, Neptune和Mars分别为希腊、罗马神话中的酒神、海神和战神，这里用它们表示酒、大海和战争，说明被酒淹死者多于大海，而被酒杀死者少于战争，表示了劝人戒酒和反对战争的意思。
At the end of two years, your sheep-skin should be the least important thing you take away.
美国女作家Diane Wakoske在Writer's Digest杂志1992年8月号撰文谈到上大学进修写作时，强调要趁这个机会多读书、研究和提高写作能力，而不要去追求学位文凭，并利用童话故事A Wolf in Sheep-skin说明她的观点。
3） 新闻报道中记者们经常利用metonymy形式称呼各类人或物，给人以简洁有力而又幽默巧妙的印象。人的姓名、人体部位、地名、地址、动植物、社会职业，等等，都可以用作换喻，而且可以新创，故而不断有新的换喻出现。这里是一些常见的例子：
Down Under: Australia
British Lion: England / the English government
Ivan: the Russian people
John Bull: England / the English people
Uncle Sam: the United States of America
Capitol Hill / the Hill: the Legislative Branch of the U. S.
Downing Street: the British government/cabinet
Hollywood: American film-making industry
Fleet Street: the British press
Foggy Bottom: U. S. State Department
Madison Avenue: American advertising industry
the Pentagon: the U. S. military establishment
Wall Street: U. S. financial circles
the White House: the U. S. President/administration
brain/head: wisdom, intelligence, reason
heart: feelings, emotions
Quisling: traitor
Romeo: lover
Helen: beautiful woman
Milton: poet
the Bar / the bar: the legal profession
the bench: position （or office） of judge / magistrate
the press: news reporters, journalists, newspapers
9.2C Synecdoche的使用
1） 美国著名诗人罗伯特·佛罗斯特（Robert Frost）说：
I prefer the synecdoche in poetry — that figure of speech in which we use a part for the whole.
除了诗人所说的局部表示整体外，还可以反过来用整体表示局部，例如：
This famous port used to be a harbour which was crowded with masts.
句中masts代替boats，即局部表示整体。又如：
All the plants in the cold country are turning green in this smiling year.
句中this smiling year指the spring，乃整体表示部分。
2） 在单数与复数、抽象与具体、物体和它的构成原料之间也会构成提喻。例如：
To the Carthaginian came aid from the Spaniard, and from the fierce Transalpine. In Italy, too, many a wearer of the toga shared the same sentiment.
（Patricia Bizzell）
句中Carthaginian等3个斜体字都是单数表示复数。又如：
Dread disaster smote his breasts with grief; so, panting, from out his lungs' very depth he sobbed for anguish.
（Patricia Bizzell）
句中breasts, lungs形式上复数，即把一个身上的左右胸肺以两个的形式表示出来，意在强调，实际上只是单数。又如：
There is a mixture of the tiger and the ape in the character of a Frenchman.
（Voltaire）
句中tiger和ape分别表示“残暴”与“狡猾”，是具体表抽象。又如：
“Einstein is my admiration,” the little girl said.
句中admiration指所崇拜的人物，是用抽象表具体。又如：
This child who is so curious of music is going to be a Beethoven, I dare say.
句中用Beethoven表示“杰出的音乐家”，即特殊表示一般。又如：
Even if you don't know Pavlov's dog from Qedipus Rex, you can write helpful, topical articles dealing with the workings of the mind or human behavior.
（Carol Turkington）
句中dog指巴甫洛夫神经学，是具体表示抽象，也可作局部表示整体。又如：
Instances of synecdoche can be found in the uses of “iron” for golf club, “cotton” for dress, “pigskin” for football, etc.
句中iron指高尔夫铁头球棒，这既是以典型用具联系人，也是局部代整体，或以某物品的制作材料代表该物，等。
练习九 （Exercise Nine）
I. Preview Questions:
1. Is analogy similar to simile in form?
2. Allegory is more tactful than metaphor, isn't it?
3. Can you cite an example to indicate that the use of an analogy can make an abstract idea concrete?
4. Indicate with an example how useful an analogy can be in persuasion?
5. What does the Greek word “allegoria” mean?
6. What play did the idiom “All that glitters is not gold.” originate from?
7. What figure of speech is used in the sentence “He must have been spoilt from the cradle.”?
8. What figure of speech is used in the sentence “More hands are needed now.”?
9. What examples can you give to indicate the popular use of metonymy in journalism?
10. What figure of speech does Robert Frost prefer?
II. Identify the figures of speech in the following sentences:
1. In rivers the water that you touch is the last of that has passed and the first of that which comes: so with time present.
2. Greece was the cradle of western culture.
3. Laugh and the world laughs with you; weep and you weep alone.
4. Every government should attend to cleaning its own Augean stables.
5. The birds are singing to the smiling year.
6. Would you like a cup or two, Eve?
7. The city has its philharmonic but also its poverty.
8. People often compare life to a road through the mountain because both have their ups and downs.
9. Too many professionally-prepared resumes read like a pitch from an old-time snake-oil pedlar.
10. There was a glamour in the air, a something in the special flavour of that moment that was like the consciousness of Salvation, or the smell of ripe peaches on a sunny wall.
11. I took a last drowning look at the title as I gave the book into her hand.
12. The Wall Street definitely has more say in their policy making.
III. Read and identify the types of figurative language:
1. The poor man had six mouths to feed.
Wisconsin meets Oregon in the Rose Bowl.
2. Suited to the pen, he sought to live by the plow.
Only a limited number of the press were admitted to the ceremony.
3. There has been a radical transformation of power. In traditional conflicts, states were like boiled eggs: War — the minute of truth — would reveal whether they were hard or soft. Today interdependence breaks all national eggs into a vast omelet. Power is more difficult to measure than ever before.
（Stanbey Hoffman）
4. What I like best are the stern cliffs, with ranges of mountains soaring behind them, full of possibilities, peaks to be scaled only by the most daring. What plants of high altitudes grow unvanished among their crags and valleys? So do I let my imagination play over the recesses of Laura's character, so austere in the foreground but nurturing what treasures of tenderness, like delicate flowers, for the discovery of the venture-some.
（V. Sackvile-West）
5. It is certain that had he never lived, most of what is correct in their parrot-learned knowledge would be absent.
（J. London）
6. The messenger was not long in returning, followed by a pair of heavy boots that came bumping along the passage like boxes.
（Dickens）
IV. Further reading
Grammatical metaphor is a semiotic process first described by Halliday as three familiar types of “rhetorical transferences”: “metaphor,” in which a “word is used for something resembling that which it usually refers to”; “metonymy,” in which a “word is used for something related to that which it usually refers”; and “synecdoche,” in which a “word is used for some larger whole of that which it refers to is a part,” e.g.
Metaphor A flood of protests poured in. [flood exemplifies a large quantity]
Metonymy Keep your eye on the ball. [eye directs the gaze]
Synecdoche Let's go and have a bite. [a bite is part of eating a meal]
The term “metaphor” is also used as a general label for these types of verbal transference. A common view of metaphor is a transference in the usage of words. We should look at it first from the perspective of meaning and ask “not ‘how is this word used?’ but ‘how is this meaning expressed?’”
Halliday distinguished types of grammatical metaphor most generally as metaphor of “mood” and “modality” and metaphor of “transitivity”: the first expands the potential of language for interpersonal meanings, and the latter expands its potential for ideational meanings.
[Keith Brown （Editor-in-chief） et al. 2nd ed., vol. 8, 66－72]
