饭饭TXT > 学习管理 > 《钓愚(出书版)》作者:[美]乔治·阿克洛夫/罗伯特·席勒【完结】 > 钓愚.txt

第六章 食品欺诈、制药与舌尖上的欺骗

作者:美-乔治·阿克洛夫/罗伯特·席勒 当前章节:8872 字 更新时间:2026-6-23 07:13

1. Anthony Arthur, Radical Innocent: Upton Sinclair (New York: Random House, 2006), Kindle locations 883–86 out of 7719; also 912–16.

2. 当辛克莱受到肉类加工公司的J·奥格登·阿默尔(J. Ogden Armour)的诉讼威胁时,他给《纽约时报》写了回信。辛克莱如实描述他的所见:

售卖那些用患有结核病、放线菌病和坏疽病的猪和牛制成的食品;用硼酸和水杨酸保存腐坏的火腿;给罐头肉用苯胺染料上色;给香肠防腐并以次充好。所有这些都意味着会导致成百上千的男人、女人与儿童的突然死亡。

放肆如辛克莱,他又撂下一句狠话:“若我所控句句属实,则只要其中1%就够将罪人送上绞架。若我所控子虚乌有,那么只要其中1%就够让我身陷囹圄。”New York Times, May 6, 1996.

3. 有关香肠掺有毒鼠肉,参见Upton Sinclair, The Jungle(Mineola, NY: Dover Thrift Editions,2001;originally published 1906),p.112;猪油掺人骨架,参见其中p.82。

4. James Harvey Young, The Toadstool Millionaires: A Social History of Patent Medicines in America before Federal Regulation (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1961), p.239.

5. Ibid., p. 59.

6. Ibid., pp. 65–66.

7. Ibid., pp. 144–57.

8. 6种完全不同的添加剂如下:硼酸和硼砂、水杨酸和水杨酸盐、硫酸和硫酸盐、苯甲酸和苯甲酸盐、福尔马林,以及硫酸铜和硝酸盐。Harvey W. Wiley, An Autobiography (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1930), p.220.

9. Ibid., pp. 215-20.

10. 正如在前言中提到的,我们向读者特别推荐这本著作:Michael Moss,Sugar, Salt and Fat(New York:Random House,2013)。

11. Garret A. FitzGerald, “How Super Are the ‘Super Aspirins’ ? New COX-2 Inhibitors May Elevate Cardiovascular Risk,” University of Pennsylvania Health System Press Release, January 14, 1999.

12. Gurkirpal Singh, “Recent Considerations in Nonsteroidal Anti-In.ammatory Drug Gastropathy,” American Journal of Medicine 105, no.1, supp. 2 (July 27, 1998): 31S-38S. 戈科尔帕奥·辛格估算认为,各类非类固醇消炎药导致的肠胃并发症保守估计也会导致16 500例死亡。如果单列出来的话,这一数字使非类固醇消炎药成为美国人的第15大死因。

13. John Abramson, Overdosed America: The Broken Promise of American Medicine, 3rd ed. (New York: Harper Perennial, 2008), p.25. See also Tom Nesi, Poison Pills: The Untold Story of the Vioxx Scandal (New York: Thomas Dunne Books, 2008), pp.25-28.

14. Nesi,Poison Pills,p.134.

15. Abramson, Overdosed America, p.106.

16. Justin E. Bekelman, Yan Li, and Cary P. Gross, “Scope and Impact of Financial Con.licts of Interest in Biomedical Research: A Systematic Review,” Journal of the American Medical Association 289, no. 4 (January 22, 2003): 454-65; Joel Lexchin, Lisa A. Bero, Benjamin Djulbegovic, and Otavio Clark, “Pharmaceutical Industry Sponsorship and Research Outcome and Quality: Systematic Review,” British Medical Journal 326, no. 7400 (May 31, 2003): 1167. Bekelman, Li and Gross同样也参考了“multiple reporting of studies with positive outcomes, further compounding publication bias”的两篇研究。

17. Bob Grant, “Elsevier Published 6 Fake Journals,” The Scientist, May 7, 2009, accessed November 24, 2014, http://classic.the-scientist.com/blog/display/55679/.同样参见Ben Goldacre, Bad Pharma: How Drug Companies Mislead Doctors and Harm Patients (New York: Faber and Faber/Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2012), pp.309–10.

18. Claire Bombardier et al., “Comparison of Upper Gastrointestinal Toxicity of Rofecoxib and Naproxen in Patients with Rheumatoid Arthritis,” New England Journal of Medicine 343, no. 21 (November 23, 2000): 1520–28.

19. Ibid., p. 1522.

20. Ibid., p. 1525, table 4.

21. 17和4这两个数字没有在原文章中出现,仅仅是从万络试验组与萘普生试验组中发生心肌梗死的比例中大致推断出来的数字。17与4这两个数字是在《新英格兰医学杂志》随后社论的表1中才公布出来的:Gregory D. Curfman, Stephen Morrissey, and Jeffrey M. Drazen, “Expression of Concern: Bombardier et al., ‘Comparison of Upper Gastrointestinal Toxicity of Rofecoxib and Naproxen in Patients with Rheumatoid Arthritis,’ N Engl J Med 2000;343;1520-8,” New England Journal of Medicine 353, no 26 (December 29, 2005): 2813–14。更让人困惑之处是另外3例万络试验组急性心肌梗死,以及VIGOR报告的一例中风。这些问题,默克公司在文章发表时就一清二楚。文章作者则回应表示,这些事件是在样本截止日期之后才观察到的,因此当时未将其计入。

22. 庞巴迪等(Bombardier et al. “Comparison of Upper Gastrointestinal Toxicity of Rofecoxib and Naproxen in Patients with Rheumatoid Arthritis,” pp.1527 and 1526)写道,在治疗心脏病发作上,萘普生具有与阿司匹林相似的效果。这一论点非常出人意料,因为Aleve经销商们从来没有把这一特点放在广告中。

23. Gregory D. Curfman, Stephen Morrissey, and Jeffrey M. Drazen, “Expression of Concern Reaffirmed,” New England Journal of Medicine 354, no.11 (March 16, 2006): 1193, supplementary appendix 1, table 3, “Summary of Adjudicated Cardiovascular Serious Adverse Experience.”

24. Nesi, Poison Pills, pp.109–110.

25. Merck had funded FitzGerald and his coauthors’ work, and was “delay[ing its] publication for years.” Ibid., n. 19, p. 110.

26. FitzGerrald, “How Super Are the ‘Super Aspirins’?”

27. Nesi, Poison Pills, pp.96-97. Searle公司开发了西乐葆,但是VIGOR结束之前Searle公司就合并到辉瑞公司了。

28. Ibid. 专家参会:p.35;60位:p.41;卡帕路亚丽思卡尔顿酒店:p.34。

29. Ibid., pp.22–23.

30. Carolyn B. Sufrin and Joseph S. Ross, “Pharmaceutical Industry Marketing: Understanding Its Impact on Women’s Health,” Obstetrical and Gynecological Survey 63, no.9 (2008): 585–96. 这一数字自文章发表后也许已经下降了,因为医生们更多地依赖网络来获取信息。

31. US Congress, Representative Henry A. Waxman, Memorandum to Democratic Members of the Government Reform Committee Re: The Marketing of Vioxx to Physicians, May 5, 2005, with accompanying documents, p. 3, http://oversight-archive.waxman.house.gov/documents/ 20050505114932-41272.pdf.

32. Ibid., p. 17.

33. Ibid., p. 18.

34. Eric J. Topol, “Failing the Public Health—Rofecoxib, Merck, and the FDA,” New England Journal of Medicine 351, no.17 (October 21, 2004): 1707-9.

35. Nesi, Poison Pills, p.155.

36. Topol, “Failing the Public Health,” p.1707.

37. David J. Graham et al., “Risk of Acute Myocardial Infarction and Sudden Cardiac Death in Patients Treated with Cyclo-oxygenase 2 Selective- and Non-selective Non-steroidal Anti-inflammatory Drugs: Nested Case-Control Study,” Lancet 365, no. 9458 (February 5–11, 2005): 475–81. 这篇研究把凯撒医疗机构患者(他们都服用了万络)的结果与对照患者(他们没有服用万络)的结果进行对比。前者出现心肌梗死的比例明显高于后者。并且,可信的是,两者的比例会随着万络剂量的增加而大幅提升。尽管这一研究结果到了2005年2月才发表,数据却是在1999年1月1日至2001年12月31日之间通过凯撒医疗机构的患者获得的。由于格雷厄姆在美国食品药品监督管理局工作,所以这些数据在正式发表之前就已经尽人皆知了,比默克公司将万络推向市场要早。

38. Nesi, Poison Pills, p.11.

39. Topol, “Failing the Public Health,” p.1707.

40. 参见格雷厄姆在参议院金融委员会2004年11月18日的证词,http://www..nance.senate.gov/imo/media/doc/111804dgtest.pdf.

41. US Food and Drug Administration, Center for Drug Evaluation and Research (CDER), Guidance for Industry Providing Clinical Evidence of Effectiveness for Human Drugs and Biological Products, May 1998, accessed December 1, 2014, http://www.fda.gov/downloads/Drugs/.../Guidances/ucm 078749.pdf. 该指南表示:“考虑到数量问题,美国食品药品监督管理局的立场是国会通常希望获得至少两次充分对照的研究,每次自圆其说,以确保有效性”(p.3)。参见David Healy, Pharmageddon(Berkeley:University of California Press,2012),p.77。

42. Nesi, Poison Pills, p.14.

43. Curfman, Morrissey, and Drazen, “Expression of Concern Reaf.rmed,” p.1193. 他们很不赞同地写道:“这一日期是资助者在试验快要结束前选择的,其比报告胃肠道不良症状的截止日期只早一个月。试验设计存在缺陷,不可避免地扭曲了试验结果,也没有告知编辑和作者。”

44. Bombardier et al., “Comparison of Upper Gastrointestinal Toxicity of Rofecoxib and Naproxen in Patients with Rheumatoid Arthritis,” p.1526.

45. Abramson, Overdosed America, p.102. 该文报告了止痛药奥施康定对安慰剂的一个研究结论。不出意料的是,奥施康定证明有效,因为接受奥施康定的患者要比根本没有接受该药的患者疼痛减少了。但是,当然,后者可能也服用了其他东西。

46. 引自Nesi,Poison Pills, p.163。

47. Goldacre, Bad Pharma, p.113.

48. Adriane Fugh-Berman, “Prescription Tracking and Public Health,” Journal of General Internal Medicine 23, no.8 (August 2008): 1277–80, published online May 13, 2008, accessed May 24, 2005, http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2517975. 对于销售代表而言,这一信息非常有用,销售代表将会根据医生开的药获得提示,这对安排医学研讨也是有用的。

49. 参见前言注释26。

50. Susanna N. Visser et al., “Trends in the Parent-Report of Health Care Provider–Diagnosed and Medicated Attention-Deficit / Hyperactivity Disorder: United States, 2003–2011,” Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 53, no. 1 (January 2014): 34–46.州差异参见图1.父母所上报的用药治疗数远低于确诊数,但各州用药与确诊还是存在高相关性。参见图2。

51. Center for Responsive Politics, “Lobbying: Top Industries,” last accessed April 30, 2014, https://www.opensecrets.org/lobby/top.php?showYear=1998&indexType=i. 全部年份,1998~2015年。健康保障的总花费超过30亿美元。

52. Robert Pear, “Bill to Let Medicare Negotiate Drug Prices Is Blocked,” New York Times, April 18, 2007, last accessed April 30, 2015, http://www.nytimes.com/2007/04/18/washington/18cnd-medicare.html?_r=0. 覆盖650万人的药品保险从医疗补贴被转移到医疗保险中,这使得药品价格被极大地推高了,让制药业发了一笔横财。参见Milt Freudenheim, “Market Place: A Windfall from Shifts to Medicare, ”New York Times, July 18, 2006, accessed November 4, 2014, http://www.nytimes.com/2006/07/18/business/18place.html?_r=1&pagewanted=print。

53. http://www.amazon.com/Principles-Economics-N-Gregory-Mankiw/dp/0538453052, last accessed April 30, 2015. (这些价格几乎肯定是要变化的。)教科书与药品之间还有一个相同点。就像教科书受著作权保护一样,药品受专利保护。不过还是有些许不同,有旧书市场,但没有给已经服用的药剂准备的市场。但是,制药公司必须处理药品专利20年后过期的问题。它们处理此问题的方式与教材编辑处理旧书的方法差不多一样。制药公司开发出一款新药,但是跟上一款只有细微差别。奥美拉唑和耐信就是如法生产出来的药品。就在奥美拉唑的专利快要过期而要公开配方之前,生产商阿斯利康公司研发了一种新药,就是耐信。药品中的一些分子具有手性:它们要么遵从右手性,要么遵从左手性。而耐信与奥美拉唑唯一的区别,在于其分子的手性上。(参见Goldacre, Bad Pharma, pp.146–48。)市场营销部因此被安排了任务:说服医生开这些新药,就像好老师有意识地要求使用最新版教材一样。

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