32. Cornell University Law School, Legal Information Institute, “Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission (08-205),” accessed January 16, 2015, http://www.law.cornell.edu/supct/cert/08-205. See also Toobin, “Annals of Law.”
33. Toobin, “Annals of Law”; Oyez, “Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission,” accessed March 18, 2005, http://www.oyez.org/cases/ 2000-2009/2008/2008_08_205.
34. Citizens United v. Federal Election Comm’n, 130 S. Ct. 876, 558 U.S. 310, 175 L. Ed. 2d 753 (2010).
35. Ibid.
36. Legal Institute, “Citizens United v. Federal Election Comm’n (No. 08-205),” accessed June 10, 2015, https://www.law.cornell.edu/supct/html/ 08-205.ZX.html.
37. Ibid.
38. Lawrence Lessig, Republic Lost: How Money Corrupts Congress—And a Plan to Stop It (New York: Hachette Book Group, 2011), p. 266.
39. Ibid., p. 268.
后记 欺骗均衡的显著性
1. 当然，许多人也并不接受这种“传统智慧”。在这方面有两大经典理论：托斯丹·凡勃伦（Thorstein Veblen）的《有闲阶级论》（The Theory of the Leisure Class: An Economic Study of the Evolution of Institutions）（New York: Macmillan, 1899），以及约翰·肯尼思·加尔布雷思的《富裕社会》（The Affluent Society）（Boston: Houghton Mif.in, 1958）。在更近一些的时候，在发表时间非常接近的两篇文章中，乔恩·汉森（Jon Hanson）和道格拉斯·凯萨（Donglas Kysar）认为偏离经济理性（尤其是像行为经济学中描述的那样）是对“操纵行为”的邀请。他们进一步讨论了这对法律的影响，并以烟草行业为例展开细节研究。Hanson and Kysar, “Taking Behavioralism Seriously: The Problem of Market Manipulation,” New York University Law Review 74, no. 3 (June 1999): 630–749, and “Taking Behavioralism Seriously: Some Evidence of Market Manipulation,” Harvard Law Review 112, no. 7 (May 1999):1420–1572.
2. 德克·J·贝泽默（Dirk J. Bezemer）整理了一张似乎预测到2008年金融危机的人士的列表，详见“‘No One Saw This Coming’: Understanding Financial Crisis through Accounting Models,”Munich Personal RePEc Archive Paper 15892 (June 2009): 9, table1,http://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/15892/1/ MPRA_paper_15892.pdf。遗憾的是，我们很难把口头和不精确的预测区分开来，并且这些预测给出的原因和认定的危机时间段千差万别。我在2005年写道：“坏的结果可能是：最终经济下行（在股票市场和房产市场）将导致个人破产率大幅提高，可能会进一步发展为金融机构的破产潮。另一个长期的后果可能是消费者和企业信心下降，之后可能是全球经济衰退。”（第xiii页。）“热潮的一部分是那些被精心设计、用来欺骗人们的各种活动，专门利用一般投资者的思维误区进行欺诈。这样的行为通常是违反法律的，但是由于我们的司法程序非常缓慢，这些方案实施者或许能够在行骗多年后成功脱身。这也是投机泡沫发展过程的一部分。”（第76页。）Robert J. Shiller, Irrational Exuberance, 2nd ed. (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2005).
3. 谷歌学术已经不提供按学科搜索的功能了，但是我们还是能够估算出包含“经济学”或者“金融学”字样的文章数量。在2014年12月15日中午12点22分（美国东部标准时间）的搜索结果为2 270 000条。当然，其中一定有很多重复的结果。这个数字与乔治所记得的、在谷歌学术还允许进行细分金融和经济学学科搜索时获得的结果大致相同。
4. Siddhartha Mukherjee, The Emperor of All Maladies: A Biography of Cancer (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2011).
5. 引自理查德·M·尼克松总统。“Remarks on Signing of the National Cancer Act of 1971,” December 23, 1971, The American Presidency Project, accessed January 17, 2015, http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=3275.
6. Mukherjee, Emperor of All Maladies, pp. 173–77.
7. Stefano DellaVigna and Ulrike Malmendier, “Contract Design andSelf-Control: Theory and Evidence,” Quarterly Journal of Economics 119, no. 2 (May 2004), p. 354.
8. Xavier Gabaix and David Laibson, “Shrouded Attributes, Consumer Myopia, and Information Suppression in Competitive Markets,” Quarterly Journal of Economics 121, no. 2 (May 2006): 505–40.
9. Robert E. Hall, “The Inkjet Aftermarket: An Economic Analysis” (prepared on behalf of Nu-kote International, Stanford University, August 8,1997), p. 2.该比例是用墨盒销售除以新打印机销售进行的大致估算。
10. Gabaix and Laibson, “Shrouded Attributes, Consumer Myopia, and Information Suppression in Competitive Markets,” p. 506, citing Hall.
11. Hall, “The Inkjet Aftermarket,” pp. 21–22; Gabaix and Laibson, “Shrouded Attributes, Consumer Myopia, and Information Suppression in Competitive Markets,” p. 507.
12. 在之后的一篇文章中，加贝克斯、莱布森和萨米特·阿加瓦尔、约翰·德瑞斯科尔合作，他们检验了人们在不同年龄段的金融能力差异。他们发现年轻人的金融能力很糟糕，因为缺乏经验；年长的人们金融能力同样糟糕，因为他们的技能开始退化。在这两者之间，有一段“理性时代”。但是那并不是这一文章的主要论点。他们的主要论点在于，不论处于哪个年龄段（尽管某些年龄段的能力优于另一些年龄段），我们都可能被那些试图利用我们的人欺骗。这的确是自由竞争市场的一个普遍问题，但是正如他们所表明的，对老年人来说，这个问题尤其严重。Agarwal, Driscoll, Gabaix, and Laibson, “The Age of Reason: Financial Decisions over the Life Cycle and Implications for Regulation,” Brookings Papers on Economic Activity (Fall 2009): 51–101.
13. 当然，如果小猫闪电可以说话，那么这些口味就不可能再被隐藏了，正如每个两岁大婴儿的家长都知道的那样。
14. 举例来说，可见：Robert J. Shiller, “Do Stock Prices Move Too Much to Be Justified by Subsequent Changes in Dividends?” American Economic Review 71, no. 3 (June 1981): 421–36; and John Y. Campbell and Robert J. Shiller, “Cointegration and Tests of Present Value Models,”Journal of Political Economy 95, no. 5 (October 1987): 1062–88.
15. J. Bradford De Long, Andrei Shleifer, Lawrence H. Summers, and Robert J. Waldmann, “Noise Trader Risk in Financial Markets,” Journal of Political Economy 98, no. 4 (August 1990): 703–38.
16. 在其他版本的“两类人”金融模型中，缺乏信息的交易者可能被替换为一些有突发、紧急流动性需求的人们，这迫使他们不考虑预期未来收益就直接出售股票。这就解决了那些不能接受市场中存在缺乏信息交易者（或者更糟——存在非理性交易者）的金融学家所面临的问题。
17. De Long, Shleifer, Summers, and Waldmann, “Noise Trader Risk in Financial Markets.”
18. formulas 21 and 25 in J. Bradford De Long, Andrei Shleifer, Lawrence H. Summers, and Robert J. Waldmann, “The Size and Incidence of the Losses from Noise Trading,” Journal of Finance 44, no. 3 (1989): 688 and 690.
19. Gabaix and Laibson, “Shrouded Attributes, Consumer Myopia, and Information Suppression in Competitive Markets,” p. 514.
20. 保罗·萨缪尔森是美国麻省理工学院的教授，他撰写了最前沿的教科书，并在“二战”后奠定了大多数标准经济学的基调。萨缪尔森认为“显示性偏好”是消费理论的核心。根据他们提出的一个公式，萨缪尔森写道：“该结果的重要性无论如何强调都不过分（原文如此）。在这个简单的公式中，包含了消费者选择理论中几乎所有最有意义的经验结果。”Samuelson, Foundations of Economic Analysis (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1947), p. 111.同样可以看提出论点的这篇论文：Samuelson,“Consumption Theory in Terms of Revealed Preference,” Economica, n.s., 15,no. 60 (November 1948): 243–53。当然，事实上被“显示”出来的只有那些消费者感觉“有诱惑力”的口味。
参考文献
“200 West Street.” Wikipedia. Accessed October 22, 2014. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/200_West_Street.
Abramson, John. Overdosed America: The Broken Promise of American Medicine. 3rd ed. New York: Harper Perennial, 2008.
Adrian, Tobias, and Hyun Song Shin. “Liquidity and Leverage.” Journal of Financial Intermediation 19, no. 3 (July 2010): 418–37.
Agarwal, Sumit, John C. Driscoll, Xavier Gabaix, and David Laibson. “The Age of Reason: Financial Decisions over the Life Cycle and Implications for Regulation.” Brookings Papers on Economic Activity (Fall 2009): 51–101.
Akerlof, George A., and Rachel E. Kranton. “Economics and Identity.” Quarterly Journal of Economics 115, no. 3 (August 2000): 715–53.
——. Identity Economics: How Our Identities Shape Our Work, Wages, and Well-Being. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2010.
Akerlof, George A., and Paul M. Romer. “Looting: The Economic Underworld of Bankruptcy for Profit.” Brookings Papers on Economic Activity 2 (1993): 1–73.
Akerlof, George A., and Robert J. Shiller. Animal Spirits: How Human Psychology Drives the Economy, and Why It Matters for Global Capitalism. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2009.
Alessi, Christopher, Roya Wolverson, and Mohammed Aly Sergie. “The Credit Rating Controversy.” Council on Foreign Relations, Backgrounder. Updated October 22, 2013. Accessed November 8, 2014. http://www.cfr .org/.nancial-crises/credit-rating-controversy/p22328.
Alexander, Raquel Meyer, Stephen W. Mazza, and Susan Scholz. “Measuring Rates of Return for Lobbying Expenditures: An Empirical Case Study of Tax Breaks for Multinational Corporations.” Journal of Law and Politics 25, no. 401 (2009): 401–57.
American National Standards Institute. “About ANSI” and “ANSI: Historical Overview.” Accessed March 14, 2015. http://www.ansi.org/about_ansi/ overview/overview.aspx?menuid=1 and http://www.ansi.org/about_ansi/ introduction/history.aspx?menuid=1.
American Psychological Association. Stress in America: Paying with Our Health. February 4, 2015. Last accessed March 29, 2015. http://www.apa.org/ news/press/releases/stress/2014/stress-report.pdf.
Anders, George, and Constance Mitchell. “Junk King’s Legacy: Milken Sales Pitch on High-Yield Bonds Is Contradicted by Data.” Wall Street Journal, November 20, 1990.
Annear, Steve. “The ‘Pavlov Poke’ Shocks People Who Spend Too Much Time on Facebook: It’s Meant to Condition Social Media ‘Addicts’ to Step Away from the Screen and Enjoy the Real World.” Boston Daily, August 23, 2013. Accessed November 26, 2014. http://www .bostonmagazine.com/news/blog/2013/08/23/pavlov-poke-shocks-people -who-spend-too-much-time-on-facebook/.
Ansolabehere, Stephen, John M. de Figueiredo, and James M. Snyder. “Why Is There So Little Money in U.S. Politics?” Journal of Economic Perspectives 17, no. 1 (Winter 2003): 105–30.
Arrow, Kenneth J., and Gerard Debreu. “Existence of an Equilibrium for a Competitive Economy.” Econometrica 22, no. 3 (July 1954): 265–90.
Arthur, Anthony. Radical Innocent: Upton Sinclair. New York: Random House, 2006. Kindle.
Asquith, Paul, David W. Mullins Jr., and Eric D. Wolff. “Original Issue High Yield Bonds: Aging Analyses of Defaults, Exchanges and Calls.” Journal of Finance 44, no. 4 (1989): 923–52.
Associated Press. “Timeline of United Airlines’ Bankruptcy.” USA Today, February 1, 2006. Accessed November 9, 2014. http://usatoday30.usatoday .com/travel/.ights/2006-02-01-united-timeline_x.htm.
Auerbach, Oscar, et al. “Changes in the Bronchial Epithelium in Relation to Smoking and Cancer of the Lung: A Report of Progress.” New England Journal of Medicine 256, no. 3 (January 17, 1957): 97–104.
Austen, Jane. Pride and Prejudice. New York: Modern Library, 1995.
Ayres, Ian. “Fair Driving: Gender and Race Discrimination in Retail Car Negotiations.” Harvard Law Review 104, no. 4 (February 1991): 817–72.
Ayres, Ian, and Peter Siegelman. “Race and Gender Discrimination in Bargaining for a New Car.” American Economic Review 85, no. 3 (June 1995): 304–21.
Babies “R” Us. “Baby Registry: Personal Registry Advisor.” Accessed March 20, 2015. http://www.toysrus.com/shop/index.jsp?categoryId=11949069.
Baer, Justin, Chad Bray, and Jean Eaglesham. “ ‘Fab’ Trader Liable in Fraud: Jury Finds Ex-Goldman Employee Tourre Misled Investors in Mortgage Security.” Wall Street Journal, August 2, 2013. Accessed March 15, 2015. http://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424127887323681904578641843284 450004.
Ball, Laurence, Jo.o Tovar Jalles, and Prakash Loungani. “Do Forecasters Believe in Okun’s Law? An Assessment of Unemployment and Output Forecasts.” IMF Working Paper 14/24 (February 2014).
Bardi, Jason. “Cigarette Pack Health Warning Labels in US Lag behind World: Internal Tobacco Company Documents Reveal Multinational Effort to Block Strong Warnings to Smokers.” University of California at San Francisco, November 16, 2012. Accessed December 8, 2014. http://www.ucsf.edu/news/2012/11/13151/cigarette-pack-health-warning -labels-us-lag-behind-world.
Barenstein, Matias F. “Credit Cards and Consumption: An Urge to Splurge?” In “Essays on Household Consumption.” PhD diss., University of California, Berkeley, 2004.
Bar-Gill, Oren, and Elizabeth Warren. “Making Credit Safer.” University of Pennsylvania Law Review 157, no. 1 (November 2008): 1–101.
Barr, Donald R., and E. Todd Sherrill. “Mean and Variance of Truncated Normal Distributions.” American Statistician 53, no. 4 (November 1999): 357–61.
Bauer-Ramazani, Christine. BU113: Critical Thinking and Communication in Business, “Major U.S. Regulatory Agencies.” Accessed March 15, 2015. http://academics.smcvt.edu/cbauer-ramazani/BU113/fed_agencies.htm.
Bekelman, Justin E., Yan Li, and Cary P. Gross. “Scope and Impact of Financial Con.icts of Interest in Biomedical Research: A Systematic Review.” Journal of the American Medical Association 289, no. 4 (January 22, 2003): 454–65.
Beral, Valerie, Emily Banks, Gillian Reeves, and Diana Bull, on behalf of the Million Women Study Collaborators. “Breast Cancer and Hormone- Replacement Therapy in the Million Women Study.” Lancet 362, no. 9382 (August 9, 2003): 419–27.
Bernhardt, Joshua. The Interstate Commerce Commission: Its History, Activities and Organization. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1923.
Bernheim, B. Douglas, and Antonio Rangel. “Addiction and Cue-Triggered Decision Processes.” American Economic Review 94, no. 5 (December 2004): 1558–90.
Bernstein, Marver H. Regulating Business by Independent Commission. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1955.
Berry, Tim. “On Average, How Much Do Stores Mark Up Products?” December 2, 2008. Accessed October 23, 2014. http://www.entrepreneur.com/ answer/221767.
Bertrand, Marianne, Matilde Bombardini, and Francesco Trebbi. “Is It Whom You Know or What You Know? An Empirical Assessment of the Lobbying Process.” American Economic Review 104, no. 12 (December 2014): 3885–3920.
Bezemer, Dirk J. “ ‘No One Saw This Coming’: Understanding Financial Crisis through Accounting Models.” Munich Personal RePEc Archive Paper 15892 (June 2009). http://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/15892/1/MPRA_ paper_15892.pdf.
Black, Duncan. “On the Rationale of Group Decision-making.” Journal of Political Economy 56, no. 1 (February 1948): 23–34.
Blanes i Vidal, Jordi, Mirko Draca, and Christian Fons-Rosen. “Revolving Door Lobbyists.” American Economic Review 102, no. 7 (December 2012): 3731–48.
Blinder, Alan S. After the Music Stopped: The Financial Crisis, the Response, and the Work Ahead. New York: Penguin Press, 2013.
Block, Jerald. “Issues for DSM-V: Internet Addiction.” American Journal of Psychiatry 165, no. 3 (2008): 306–7.
Bloomberg News. “Cuomo Announces Reform Agreements with 3 Credit Rating Agencies.” June 2, 2008. http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/ news?pid=newsarchive&sid=a1N1TUVbL2bQ. —“United Airlines Financial Plan Gains Approval from Creditors.” New York Times, December 31, 2005.
Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve. Current Release, Consumer Credit, table G-19, for August 2014, released on October 7, 2014. Accessed November 5, 2014. http://www.federalreserve.gov/releases/g19/current/.
Boccara, Bruno. Socio-Analytic Dialogue: Incorporating Psychosocial Dynamics into Public Policies. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2014.
Bokhari, Sheharyar, Walter Torous, and William Wheaton. “Why Did Household Mortgage Leverage Rise from the Mid-1980s until the Great Recession?” Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Center for Real Estate, January 2013. Last accessed May 12, 2015. http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/ viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.269.5704&rep=rep1&type=pdf.
Bombardier, Claire, et al. “Comparison of Upper Gastrointestinal Toxicity of Rofecoxib and Naproxen in Patients with Rheumatoid Arthritis.” New England Journal of Medicine 343, no. 21 (November 23, 2000): 1520–28.
Bosworth, Steven, Tania Singer, and Dennis J. Snower. “Cooperation, Motivation and Social Balance.” Paper presented at the American Economic Association Meeting, Boston, January 3, 2015.
Bounds, Gwendolyn. “Meet the Sticklers: New Demands Test Consumer Reports.” Wall Street Journal, May 5, 2010. Accessed March 14, 2015. http://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052748703866704575224093017379202#mod=todays_us_personal_journal.
Boyd, Roddy. Fatal Risk: A Cautionary Tale of AIG’s Corporate Suicide. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 2011.
Brandt, Allan M. The Cigarette Century: The Rise, Fall, and Deadly Persistence of the Product That Defined America. New York: Basic Books, 2007.
