呼叫：halloo，hallo，hello，hey，holo，hola，ho，ahoi
安慰词：there there
鄙视：bah，bosh，fudge，humph，pshaw，pooh，fie，faugh，fooey，shit（taboo）
诅咒：blast（it）（英），bullshit（美），crap，balls，confound it（or him），damn（or darn，dash）it（all），Goddamn（美），Jesus，Christ，hell，you bastard，bloody（英）fool，real asshole（美）——禁忌语
告别：farewell，bye-bye，goodbye，so long
发现情况：aha，o-o,oho，and so
怀疑：hum，hem，well，humph
恐惧：oh，ugh，no-no，ha
驱逐：begone，avaunt，out，away，off，piss off（禁忌语）
发冷：brr
打招呼：hello，hi，howdy，good morning（或afternoon）（也可用来告别），good night（晚间告别语），see you
不耐烦：tut，tush，why，come come
疑问：eh? ha? hey?
高兴：ah，ha，aha，hurrah，hip hip hip（hurrah），oh，rah，boy，goody，mmmm，oooo，whoopee，whee，wow
笑声：Ha-ha，he-he，ho-ho，te-hee，aha，yi-yi
疼痛：ah，eh，oh，ugh，height，heigh-ho，ouch，yipe，ow，wow
赞叹：bravo，o，swell，O.K.，attaboy，hear hear
要求安静：hist，hush，shh，mum，whist
打喷嚏：achoo
悲哀：alas，ah，oh me，oh no，woe
让站住：stop，hold，halt，wait，whoa
惊讶：gee，gosh，golly，man，whew，oh dear，dear me，goodness，wow，gracious，oh Lord，good Lord，oh boy，oh my
得意：there，now，so
厌倦：heigh-ho，ho-hum，O me，whew
1300 其他词类的词也可用作感叹词，来表示突然的情绪。
名词：Fire! Fire! Water! Quick! Water!
Silence! It is all rubbish．
My purse!
Good morning!
形容词：Strange! Where is my key?
Quiet! Look at that man with a long，long nose．
Fine! You shall be rewarded．
Shocking! Nobody could believe it．
动词：Look out! There comes a truck．
Listen! I am your father．How could you talk like that?
We are arrived．Stop!
Hear，hear!
Married! Ida married to a stranger!
副词：Away! You are not wanted here．
Why，that is very easy．
Well，that is no ordinary matter．
甚至短语和句子也可用来表示情绪。
Well done!
Well said!
Just my luck!
For shame!
Three cheers for—!
Well I never!
Good stuff!
Didn't I tell you!
That's something!
That's just too bad!
It shouldn't happen to a dog!
That is the beauty of it!
You're crazy!
Act your age!
第16单元 句子概论
一、句子的5类成分
1301 句子成分可以分为基本成分、附属成分、独立成分、省略成分和连接成分5类。
1．基本成分
1302 根据其结构，句子可以分为5类：
a．主语＋不及物动词
John came．
（S） （IV）
b．主语＋及物动词＋宾语
John likes oranges．
（S） （TV） （O）
c．主语＋双宾动词＋间接宾语＋直接宾语
John gave Mary books．
（S） （DV） （IO） （DO）
d．主语＋系动词＋主语补语
John is happy．
（S） （LV） （SC）
e．主语＋宾补动词＋宾语＋宾语补语
John makes Mary angry．
（S） （FV） （O） （OC）
主语、不及物动词、及物动词、双宾动词、系动词、宾补动词、宾语及补语可以称为句子的基本成分。上面的句子，如把任何一个成分删除，就都会成为病句。从中也可看出，完整的句子一般至少包含2个基本成分，至多4个基本成分。
2．附属成分
1303 基本成分可以加修饰语：（1）定语（即用来修饰名词的单词、短语或从句）；（2）状语（即用来修饰名词或代词以外的词的单词、短语或从句）。下面的例句中，修饰语为斜体字，被修饰的词为黑体字。
(1)Poor John tottered toward a hospital nearby．
John likes oranges imported from the US．
John gave Mary many books，which are full of illustrations．
(2)John often came to chat with me．
John likes oranges very much．
Whenever he gets drunk，John makes Mary very angry．
这类句子，即使把修饰语去掉，结构也仍是完整的。这种修饰语在意思上可能很重要，但在结构上不影响句子的完整性，因此被称作附属成分。
3．独立成分
1304 句子中还有一类成分，可以去掉，不影响句子的完整性，并和句子的其他词没有语法上的关系，因此被称作独立成分。
Oh! What is that!（惊叹词）
He has，alas，failed again．
Come here，John．（呼语）
Roll on，Ocean，roll on．
4．省略成分
1305 此外还有一类被省略的成分，虽然未说出来，却在句中表示一定的意思。
（You）Come here．
（I wish you）Good luck!
Some gave him praises，but others（gave him）rotten eggs．
5．连接成分
1306 最后还有连接成分，它实际上是一个并列连词，用来连接几个平行的词、短语和分句。
1307 总之，一个完整的句子（从句或分句）必须包含2到4个基本成分。如果意思上有需要，还可包含一个或更多其他的句子成分。
二、句子中词语特点的3种表达方式
1308 句中词语的特点可以3种方式来加以说明：
1．解析
2．分析
3．图解
以That boy shook his head．为例，可以用下面3种方式加以说明：
1．解析
That—指示形容词，修饰单数名词boy。
boy—普通名词，阳性，单数，主格，为动词shook的主语。
shook—及物动词，过去式。
his—物主代词，阳性，单数，第三人称，所有格，修饰名词head。
head—普通名词，中性，单数，宾格，shook的宾语。
2．分析
3．图解
解析对词的分类处理过多，不甚有用。分析说明了句中词之间的关系，但有时显得很复杂。图解最有用，因为它以最简单明了的方式说明了词与词之间的关系，而这种关系有时会把读者弄糊涂。
三、图解规则
1．基本成分的图解办法
1309 5类基本句及4种基本成分可以用下面的方式加以图解：
一个词的特定地位意味着它的特定作用。和横线相交的左边竖线把主语S（在左面）和动词V（在右面）分开。斜线表示它右面的词为主语或宾语的补语。另一竖线表示右面的词为宾语O。
2．附属成分的图解办法
1310 主语、动词、宾语及补语这4种基本成分都放在横线的上方，附属成分如形容词、副词及起相同作用的其他词语，都放在横线的下方，紧挨在它们所修饰词的下面。
My father left yesterday．
Some people write commercial letters skillfully．
Some naughty little children broke his expensive spectacles purposely．
A downright bad man is very often a wonderfully successful man．
The old man opposite the street visited his children in France in 1968．
3．成语、助动词、动名词等的图解办法
1311 应当记住，一个空位通常只容一个词（类），但成语由几个词构成却起一个词（类）的作用。因此有必要把构成成语的几个词放在一个空位中，因为成语表示一个单一的意思，不宜分割成几个词（类）。
The Minister of Economics paid attention to the inflation．
助动词应和主要动词放在一起。
She has been raising her children for the last ten years．
介词短语、不定式短语、动名词短语或名词从句在用作主语、宾语或补语时，可用一个来进行图解，不仅表示其内在结构，还表示它作为一个词和其他词的关系。
He is in a bad temper．
注意，这个句子有3个基本成分：主语＋系动词＋补语。补语部分in a bad temper的图解不仅说明了这4个词之间的关系，还通过使用说明它作为一个单一词类和其他词之间的关系，即起形容词的作用，作为系动词is的补语。而在下面的图解中，这个短语占了2个空位，这样容易引起误会，因为人们会以为这个句子包含4个基本成分。
To tell lies is not always successful．
上面图解中to tell lies这个不定式短语一方面表明了to tell是一个及物动词，lies是它的宾语；另一方面说明整个短语起名词作用，只占一个空，作为句子的主语。如果用下面的图解，就会引起误会。
He likes playing tennis in the morning．
注意上面动名词playing tennis in the morning的图解，一方面说明playing为及物动词，tennis为其宾语，而in the morning为其修饰语；另一方面说明这个短语起名词作用，用作及物动词（谓语动词）like的宾语。
He washes before taking dinner．
注意taking dinner这个动名词短语，通过使用，表明其为一个单一词类，起名词作用，用作介词before的宾语。如作下面的图解则会引起误会。
I know that you speak English well．
注意that引起的从句的图解，一方面表明了这5个词之间的关系（that为连词，主语为you，speak为及物动词，宾语为English，well为speak的修饰语）；另一方面说明整个从句起一个单一词类即名词的作用，用作及物动词know的宾语。that上下的两条横线表明它是一个连词。
4．其他规则
1312 在图解中，省略的词应用圆括号标出。
He has walked fifty miles．
Come here．
What（=The thing which）I know is unimportant．
问号及惊叹号放在横线右边末尾，在图解中大写字母保持不变。
Can he come?
What a trip we have had!
只要句子的意思保持不变，词语位置的任何变动都不影响图解。
He left for France yesterday．和Yesterday he left for France．图解的方式一样。
同样，I sing this song specially for you．和Specially for you I sing this song．图解的方式一样。
My happy days are gone!和Gone are my happy days!也如此。
某些特殊的句子，根据不同的理解可有不同的图解方式。例如在He is out of temper．中，out of temper可看作是成语，是一个整体，这时图解方式如下：
如果把它看作介词短语，包含两个成分，则可作如下图解：
在Walking along the street，John met Mary．这个句子中，Walking along the street可以看作定语，这时可以按下面的方式图解：
如果把它看作状语，图解会是下面这个方式：
还有一些其他规则，说明如下：
在主要横线左端下方的竖线表示它后面或下面的词和全句有关。这个词可以是一个句子的修饰语，或是一个把这个句子和另一句子连接起来的并列连词。
Luckily，I found the lost ring．
In a word，I can do no more．
I study music and my wife does housework．
He is a great politician；besides，he is an artist．
He worked very hard；on the other hand，his children played all day．
Indeed he knows his fault，but he refuses to own it．
最后，注意以后各节中，凡有星号的例句，我们都将在各句型讲完之后加以图解。
第17单元 主语的12种类型（附图解）
1313 名词或代词是主语最重要的形式，却不是唯一的形式。除了名词和代词，还有10种其他形式可以用作主语。由于它们都起名词的作用，我们可将其称作名词等同体（Noun-Equivalent）。此外，通过下面的句子我们可以知道，it是一个作主语的重要代词。
一、名词（或代词）
1314 Books are good companions．*
London is populous．
如果名词所表示的主语受到强调或有较长的修饰语，那么它可以由一个代词代替，本身则移到句子末尾。
He is a nice fellow，your uncle．
It is truly long，that bridge across the Yellow River．*
They have gone away，those rascals．
There it stood a monument of all ages．
It is funny the way（that）he teaches his children．（主语可以跟定语从句）
It astonishes me the number of the wives he has．
It is inscrutable the rumour that is spreading．
[=]表示它上面的整个词组和它前面的词指的是同一东西。
二、名词成语
1315 “Crocodile tears” means pretended sorrow．* The dog star is the largest fixed star．A “field piece” means a cannon．The river bed is muddy．I wore a sun hat． He is a paper tiger and who is afraid of him?（名词＋名词）
His maiden speech is wonderful．A leap year comes every fourth year．His untimely end is beyond belief．A wet blanket and a queer fish are coming toward us．Is a heavy hand enough to suppress the revolt?（形容词＋名词）
Today is All Fools' Day．A cat's paw may be a scapegoat．This printer's ink is poor．“Man's estate” means the age of manhood．（名词所有格＋名词）
An apple of discord was thrown among them．A Jack of all trades may be a good-for-nothing．A fish out of water will die soon．Here is a case in point．A friend at court will help me．（名词＋介词＋名词）
The ins and outs of this scandal interested us．* The long and short of the story is this．The ups and downs of life are familiar to my uncle．（名词＋and＋名词）
Guangdong Province is in the south of China．Stratford-on-Avon is the birthplace of Shakespeare．The Ministry of Education has issued an important ordinance．（专有名词短语）
其他例子：
a curtain lecture，elbow room，an insect bite，fairy tales
the Almighty Dollar，the Dark Continent，the black market，a dark room，a golden wedding，an aching void，a low diet
the bull's eye，a sheep's eye，a fool's cap，a sailors' home，Achilles' heel，Adam's apple，the lion's share，the king's evil
the age of machinery，the art of God，the man in the street，a bed of roses，a woman of the world，a man of family，a letter of credit，a word of honour，castles in the air，a friend in need，a man about town
all beer and skittle，the alpha and omega，the why and wherefore，the sum and substance，Darby and Joan，David and Jonathan
三、代词
1316 We shall start tomorrow．* She likes it．
Mine（=My family）is an unhappy family．His（=His fate）has been the fate of an unusual artist．Hers is a car made in Germany．（名词性物主代词＋系动词＋名词）
We（=Our class）are full up．We（=Our office）close on Saturday afternoon．He（=His watch）is too fast．We（=Our things）have been packed．（人称代词有时可用来表示属于某人的东西）
My uncle he（名词＋多余的代词）wants it done．People in town they have never seen cows．（文化低的人的语言或歌谣中的说法）
She is a nice girl，Mary．They are very selfish，those people．*（代词在前，指同一人或东西的名词在后，参阅1314节）
It is hot（or cloudy，snowing，raining）．（It指天气）
It is spring（or morning，Sunday，my birthday）；struck three，is growing towards evening．（It指时间）
It is ten miles（or a long way）．（It指距离）
It is I（or me）．（It指一个身份尚不清楚的人）
It is all over with him．How is it with him？How goes it ？（It泛指一般情况）
It is my sister（主语受到强调）that（or who）studied English at A．A．A．School when she was seventeen．（用It is...that...这种结构可以对主语、宾语、状语短语或状语从句加以强调。My sister studied at A．A．A．School when she was seventeen．是原来的句子，对主语加以强调时可改为上面的形式）
It is English（宾语受到强调）that（or which）my sister studied，etc．*
It is at A．A．A．School（状语短语受到强调）that（or where）my sister studied English，etc．
It is when she was seventeen（状语从句受到强调）that my sister studied English at A．A．A．School．
It is I that said so．
It is waiting for a chance that will not do．
It is here（or then，for this reason，with a lightning speed） that he married her．
It was after seeing her that he became crazy．
Who is it that you want？What is it that he is looking for？
It is only arithmetic that he is afraid of．It is only her idols that she pays attention to．It is not his children that he cares about，but his business．
It is a good horse that never stumbles．（=No horse is so good as to never stumble．）（这类常在谚语中出现的句子，结构虽和上面的句子相同，意思却不一样）
It is a silly fish that is caught twice．（=No fish is so silly as to be caught twice．）
It is an ill bird that fouls his own nest．（=No bird is so ill as to foul his own nest．）
注：It可以代表一个动名词、不定式或从句。可参阅1318节—可参阅1322节。
It表示the thing。that引起的从句可以看作定语，修饰主语It。that起从属连词和代词的作用，图解记号异于并列连词。
四、the＋形容词（或分词）
1317 The brave deserve the fair．* The young are to be educated．There are the dying and the dead，the slain and the vanquished．（复数主语）
The beautiful and the good is our ideal．The middle or the thick of the forest has many animals in it．The accused（or The deceased）is a rich man．The French is different in character from the English．（单数主语）
五、不定式
1318 作主语的不定式常常由it代替，本身放到句末作为it的同位语。
To live in Tokyo would be too expensive．* It would be too expensive to live in Tokyo．*
To go out of town every weekend became our custom．It became our custom to go out of town every weekend．
To have broken his leg is his bad luck．It is his bad luck to have broken his leg．
To be happy requires（or needs，wants）no great fortune．It requires no great fortune to be happy．
To be rich or to be poor makes a lot of difference．It makes a lot of difference to be rich or to be poor．
To raise the fund，to set up the building，to employ workers，all these take time．
The story makes me sick to repeat．To repeat the story makes me sick．It makes me sick to repeat the story．（这三句意思相同，却有不同的主语）
This theory takes much time to understand．To understand this theory takes much time．It takes much time to understand this theory．
To answer the question you asked in your letter is easy．It is easy to answer the question you asked in your letter．The question you asked in your letter，it is easy to answer．（这三句意思相同，可比较其主语）
To handle a wife who comes of a rich family seems difficult．It seems difficult to handle a wife who comes of a rich family．A wife who comes of a rich family，it seems difficult to handle．
不定式可以有一个意义上的主语。
For John to live in Tokyo would be too expensive．* It would be too expensive for John to live in Tokyo．
For a commoner to marry a nobleman's daughter does not astonish me．It does not astonish me for a commoner to marry a nobleman's daughter．
For politicians to talk about peace is as funny as for drinkers to talk about temperance．It is as funny as for drinkers to talk about temperance，for politicians to talk about peace．
下面的句子中不定式没有意义上的主语。for you，of you等和it is有关，起补语作用。
It is for（or up to）you to say yes or no．（=To say yes or no is for [or up to] you．）
It is easier for you to speak to the boss than for me．（=To speak to the boss is easier for you than for me．）
It is very kind of you to do so．（=To do so is very kind of you．）
It is natural in Mary to love John．
It is inconvenient to her to wait so long．
It is up to you to apologize．
注意意义上的主语for John是如何图解的。
六、动名词
1319 和不定式一样，作主语的动名词也可以用it代替。
Living in Tokyo would be too expensive．* It would be too expensive living in Tokyo．*
Crying over spilt milk is no use．It is no use crying over spilt milk．
There is no climbing up the cliff．（= Climbing up the cliff is impossible．）
There is no denying the fact．（= Denying the fact is impossible．）
John's（or His）living in Tokyo would be too expensive．* It would be too expensive John's（or his）living in Tokyo．（动名词在这里有意义上的主语）
注意动名词意义上的主语John's如何图解的。
七、that引起的从句
1320 由that引起的主语从句常可用it代替，而其本身则移到句尾，作为it的同位语。
That he had succeeded pleased me very much．* It pleased me very much that he had succeeded．
That he was killed is a serious matter．It is a serious matter that he was killed．
That he has done his best is clear．It is clear（that）he has done his best．
（如果句子不长，that可以省略）
The fact（or The circumstance）that he was killed was a serious matter．
（that引起的从句前面常可放the fact或the circumstance）
