It is clear(or likely,certain)that he likes his job.
It would be better that he give up smoking.(=He had better give up smoking.)
It is rumoured(or said,learned,denied)that the premier decides to resign.
It is a pity that he should die so young.
It happened(or chanced,came about,developed,turned out)that the detective himself was the thief.*
It came about that we had not enough money to pay the bill.
It seems(or appears,occurs)to me that she is a poet.
It struck me that I could be a lawyer.
He is poor,but it does not follow that he will cheat anyone.
It is not that A is an upright man,but that he has no chance to do evil.
It may be that B is too hungry to do any good,but it cannot be that he is willing to do any evil.
It is(high)time that we started.
How is it that you know so much? How comes it(about)that you know so much?How come(=why)you know so much?
(It is)Some(Little,No)wonder(that) he failed.(在用wonder作补语时,it is可以省略)
(It was)A wonder(that) he did not fall.What wonder(was it)that he failed?(=It was natural that he failed.)
It is said(or denied,rumoured)that the Mayor fell in love with Mary.The Mayor,it is said(or denied,rumoured),fell in love with Mary.(上面这两句意思几乎相同,但在第二句中不能用that)
由that引起的从句用作名词及主语,注意连词that的图解方式。
八、疑问词引起的从句
1321 由疑问词引起的从句,和that引起的从句一样,可以由it代替。
How he could do it seemed a mystery.* It seemed a mystery how he could do it.*
Where he had escaped puzzled me.It puzzled me where he had escaped.
What is it to me who he is ?
It does not matter when you get married,but...
连接词how和副词how都在这个图解中表示出来,但其中一个需加括号。
九、疑问词+不定式
1322 由疑问词引起的不定式,和连接词引起的从句一样,也可以用it代替。
How to escape seems to be a problem.* It seems to be a problem,how to escape.*
What to say puzzles me.It puzzles me what to say.
Whether or not to follow the policy depends upon circumstances.It depends upon circumstances whether or not to follow the policy.
十、术语和引语
1323 On is a preposition.* Buy means “get by paying a price”.“Look before you leap” is a famous proverb.*“Honesty is the best policy”is a saying often ridiculed by people.
十一、介词短语
1324 From seven to seven is our store hours.From infancy to manhood is an important period.From here to there is a short distance.Good in the saddle is good for everything.(这样的短语用作主语的情况很少)
十二、省略
1325(You)Sit down,please.(You)Wait a minute.(Do you)Like it?*(You had)Better say no.(Are you)Feeling any better?*(It)Seems to be impossible.(作主语时,有些代词有时省略)
第18单元 谓语的47种类型
一、概说
A.英语句子结构相对简单
1.5种类型的谓语
1326 在一个完整的句子中,主语之外的部分称为谓语。共有5种类型的谓语。
第1类包含一个不及物动词(IV):
He came.
My wife cried.
第2类包含一个及物动词及其宾语(TV+O):
John likes me.
His uncle wrote letters.
第3类包含一个双宾动词、一个间接宾语和一个直接宾语(DV+IO+DO):
They teach me English.
I bought Mary sugar.
第4类包含一个系动词及主语补语(LV+C):
He is a teacher.
She looks sad.
第5类包含一个宾补动词、宾语及宾语补语(FV+O+C):
We made him king.
She left the house dirty.
2.动词的短语形式
1327 不过,动词、宾语及补语的意义还应当广一些。上面例句中的及物动词、不及物动词或其他动词都是一个单词,但有时可以是一个起同样作用的短语或成语。例如“及物动词+名词”可以看作是一种不及物动词:
He lost heart.(他灰心了。)
This habit has struck root.(这种习惯已根深蒂固了。)
下面句子中的动词成语则可以看作是一种及物动词:
I looked for my lost dictionary.(我在找我弄丢的字典。)
He paid attention to his lesson.(他很注意他的功课。)
He gave up drinking.(他戒酒了。)
He is afraid of blood.(他怕血。)
He can't get along with anyone.(他和谁都处不好。)
下面句中的动词成语可以看作一种宾补动词:
I waited for him to come.(我等他来。)
详见1182节—详见1206节。
3.宾语的9种形式
1328 此外,也不只是名词或代词可用作宾语,共有9种形式可用作及物动词、双宾动词及宾补动词的宾语。由于它们是名词或起名词的作用,可以称作名词等同体(Noun-Equivalent),可用作动词的宾语。
I know John(名词).
She kept the floor dirty.
I will teach John Chinese.
I know him(代词).
She kept it clean.
That depends upon them.
He threw out an apple of discord(名词短语).
I have just visited the Board of Trade.
I am not fond of wild goose chase.
This matter interests the rich and the poor(the+形容词或分词).
The general visited the dying and the wounded.
I know the long and(the)short of this case.
He wants to go to college(不定式).
She refuses to marry me.
I asked to see a friend in prison.
He is fond of swimming in the morning(动名词).
He avoids meeting any of his friends.
I postponed going to the doctor.
I know that she loves me(that引起的从句).
I am sure that you will succeed.
Is he afraid that he will be defeated ?
I wonder what he wants(疑问词引起的从句).
I asked where he had been.
I don't know which way I should go.
I don't know what to do(疑问词引起的不定式).
I am doubtful how to settle this problem.
I do not care where to eat dinner.
4.补语的15种形式
1329 不只是名词和形容词可用作补语,上面所提的9种名词等同体以及下面例句中的6种形容词等同体(Adjective-Equivalent)都可用作系动词或宾补动词的补语。
名词及名词等同体作补语:
He is a king(名词).
We chose him chairman.
It is me(代词).
He became a fish out of water(名词短语).
I find it a moot point.
The victims are always the poor(the+形容词).
To respect others is to be respected(不定式).
Seeing is believing(动名词).
His purpose is that all children should be educated(that引起的从句).
The problem is who is to blame(疑问词引起的从句).
My problem is how to learn(疑问词引起的不定式).
形容词及形容词等同体作补语:
He seems happy(形容词).
You look young.
He makes me angry.
He is out(地点副词).
The show is over.
Time is up.
He is at home(介词短语).
We are on good terms.
He leaves his desk out of order.
It seems interesting(现在分词).
The situation grows encouraging.
I saw Mary smoking.
I am astonished(过去分词).
He looked frightened.
I had my clothes washed.
He is to blame(不定式).
It is to be thrown away.
He wants his daughter to marry a rich man.
5.再复杂的句子也可简化
1330 因此,我们可以把许多词看成一个词,把许多不同的形式看作同类的事物,从而使句子的结构变得简单。例如我们可以把I know that he does not like to live in this country.中的10个斜体词和I know John.中的一个斜体词看作是有同一语法作用的事物,因为两者都是及物动词的宾语。我们也可把He begged to see a friend in prison.中的6个斜体词和He begged pardon.中的一个斜体词看作是作用相等,因为两者都是宾语。
同样,我们也可把He is to come to the office at eight.中的7个斜体词和He is punctual.中的一个斜体词看作相等的事物,因为两者都是补语。另外,下面4个句子中的斜体词形式不一,我们却可将其看作一类东西,因为它们都是及物动词或是起及物动词作用的词组:
He likes chocolate.(他喜欢巧克力。)
He is fond of teaching.(他爱教书。)
John pays attention to his business.(约翰关心他的买卖。)
I am sure that he will be a good husband.(我肯定他会是一个好丈夫。)
此外,在上面的单元中,我们已谈到名词、名词成语、不定式、从句等。它们尽管形式不同,字数不等,却都起同样作用,担任句子的主语。这样,不管多复杂的句子都可简化,而简化是语法的目的。
B.何种谓语类型用何种动词
1.47种谓语类型
1331 我们一方面有不同形式的动词,另一方面有不同形式的宾语及补语。把它们结合起来,再加上一些其他因素,我们可以得出47种基本的谓语类型,这几乎代表了英语中的各种可能的谓语。我们可能读到的或写出的任何谓语,几乎都可以(而且应当)被纳入这些类型。这47种类型可列举如下:
IV 有3种类型
TV+O 有15种类型
DV+IO+DO 有5种类型
LV+C 有13种类型
FV+O+C 有11种类型
* * *
5类谓语 共有47种类型
2.一个特定动词只能用在几个特定的谓语类型中
1332 为了更好地了解这些谓语类型,我们先看看下面的句子:
a.I know him to work hard.
b.We want him to come.
c.She let us to use her car.
d.They suppose all of us to obey.
e.John saw Mary to walk with a boy.
所有这些句子的谓语都属于第42种类型,即“宾补动词+名词+不定式”,但只有b.句的谓语是正确的,因为只有want这一动词可用于这个类型,其他动词都不能这样用。再看下面的句子:
a.I tried advising her.
b.I asked seeing the boss.
c.He thinks going with you.
d.We wish moving to another place.
e.They refused helping us.
上面所有谓语都属于第13种类型,即“及物动词+动名词”,但只有a.句是正确的,因为动词try可用于这种类型,而其他动词不可这样用。
从上面10个例句中我们可以看出,一个特定动词只能用在某一特定的类型中。在一个特定的类型中,一个特定的动词能用还是不能用,完全是一个习惯用法的问题。
1333 从下面的句子中可以看出know可用在多少类型的谓语中:
I know John.(及物动词+名词)(正确)
I know John to come tomorrow.(宾补动词+名词+不定式)(错误)
I know that John comes tomorrow.(及物动词+that引起的从句)(正确)
I know to answer this question.(及物动词+不定式)(错误)
I know the work easy.(宾补动词+名词+形容词)(错误)
I know how to answer this question.(及物动词+疑问词引起的不定式)(正确)
I know the work to be easy.(宾补动词+名词+to be+形容词)(正确)
I know John coming.(宾补动词+名词+现在分词)(错误)
I know organizing a political party.(及物动词+动名词)(错误)
从上面的例句中我们可以看出,某些动词只能用在47种类型的某些类型中,不能在所有的类型中使用。
3.一个特定的谓语类型中只能用某些特定的动词
1334 有些类型中可以使用很多动词,另一些却只能使用少量动词。例如在“系动词+that引起的从句”这种类型中只能用be这一个动词,在“不及物动词+介词+疑问词引起的从句”这种类型中约可用20个动词,在“及物动词+不定式或动名词”这种类型中,约可用50个动词,而在“及物动词+that引起的从句”这种类型中,约可用150个动词。每种类型中能用的动词,在本单元中将几乎全部列出并加上例句,以便读者了解并掌握什么动词在何种类型中使用。不过某些谓语类型中可用的动词极多(可说是成百上千),在这种情况下只能给出一小部分动词。
C.谓语类型与句型
1335 关于上面提到的类型有几点值得注意:
1.动词只需与主语在人称和数上一致,因此它们之间的关系相对比较简单。而动词和宾语及补语的关系比较复杂,这在下面47种谓语类型中可清楚看出。如果对主语不加考虑,这47种谓语类型也就是47种句型。事实上在下面的讨论中,谓语类型的公式都采用“S+TV+N”“S+DV+N+N”“S+FV+N+A”这类形式,里面包含了主语(S),因此也就代表了句型。
2.一个句型可以包含一个简单句。
John knows how to play football.
He avoided meeting her at some party.
3.也可以包含一个带有宾语从句的复合句。
He knows what you are doing.
I asked where he got it.
4.但并列句中至少需有两个句型。
I have decided to go(一个句型)and he will go,too(一个句型),but she decides to remain at home(一个句型).(共包含三个句型)
D.修饰语与独立成分
1336 句型指一个完整句子的骨架,它可以有任何数量的修饰语(即形容词、副词及起同样作用的其他词语)。这些修饰语可能在意思上很重要,但在语法上却是可以删掉的。我们在考虑句型,也就是句子的基本结构时,对它们可以不加考虑。下面所有的句子都属于同一句型,即“主语+及物动词+名词”,却包含了不同类型的修饰语(斜体部分)。最后包含25个词的句子和第一个包含4个词的句子同属一个句型。
I saw a house.
I saw a big house.
I saw a big house on the opposite side.
I saw a big house on the opposite side,which was said to be haunted by a ghost.
Yesterday I saw a big house....
Yesterday when I sailed down the river I saw a big house....
我们会在后面详细讨论修饰语。句型还可以包含一个独立成分,但基本结构不变。
下面的句子都属于同一句型,即“主语+系动词+补语”:
That man is crazy.
Oh !That man is crazy.
Oh !That man is crazy,I am sure.
Oh !That man is crazy,you may be sure,Mary.
E.句型的用法
1337 在下面的讨论中,所列出能用于某句型的动词的数目只是大致估计。列出的目的只是说明某一句型使用范围大致有多广。一般说来,数目越小,句型越难使用,因为如果这个句型只限于少数动词,则用错的概率更大。
1338 偶尔也会有些例外的句子无法归入这47种句型中的任何一个。但如果把某些不规则的动词短语适当转换为规则的动词短语,则它们大部分仍可归入某些句型。
I have a good mind(=intend)to punish you.(have a good mind可以换为intend,则句型将是“主语+及物动词+不定式”)
He will have it(=insists)that I have cheated him.(主语+及物动词+that引起的从句)
“Who has taken my pen?”“John(has taken your pen).”
(I)Beg(your)pardon.
(It was)No sooner said than(it was)done.
(You)Live and let(others)live.
(I wish you)Good luck!
1339 确定一个句子属于哪个句型是有好处的。下面的句子都是错的,因为它们不属于47种句型中的任何一个:
1.I hear about that John has arrived.(主语+不及物动词+介词+that引起的从句)
2.I paid attention what he was doing.(主语+及物动词+名词+疑问词引起的从句)
3.He is afraid of that he will be assassinated.(主语+系动词+形容词+介词+that引起的从句)
4.He is afraid being assassinated.(主语+系动词+形容词+动名词)
5.I know that who has broken the window.(主语+及物动词+that+疑问词引起的从句)
6.We want peaceful.(主语+及物动词+形容词)
这些句子应改正如下:
正确句型 正确句子
1.主语+及物动词+that引起的从句 I hear that John has arrived.
2.主语+及物动词+名词+介词+疑问词引起的从句 I paid attention to what he was doing.
3.主语+系动词+形容词+that引起的从句 He is afraid that he will be assassinated.
4.主语+系动词+形容词+介词+动名词 He is afraid of being assassinated.
5.主语+及物动词+疑问词引起的从句 I know who has broken the window.
6.主语+及物动词+名词 We want peace.
其次,应确定使用的动词是否适合用于某个谓语类型。
F.47种句型的公式
1340 每种句型都可以用一个公式来代表,例如:“S+IV”“S+TV+N”“S+LV+AP”“S+FV+N+PaP”“S+DV+N+that-Cl”。下面列出了代表某些词的缩写形式:
S=Subject(主语)
O=Object(宾语)
C=Complement(补语)
IO=Indirect Object(间接宾语)
DO=Direct Object(直接宾语)
IV=Intransitive Verb(不及物动词)
TV=Transitive Verb(及物动词)
DV=Dative Verb(双宾动词)
LV=Linking Verb(系动词)
FV=Factitive Verb(宾补动词)
I=Infinitive(不定式)
G=Gerund(动名词)
PrP=Present Participle(现在分词)
that-Cl=Noun-Clause(that 引起的名词从句)
PaP=Past Participle(过去分词)
N=Noun or Pronoun(名词或代词)
R=Reflexive Pronoun(反身代词)
A=Adjective(形容词)
P=Preposition(介词)
AP=Adverb of Place,or Adverbial Particle,as in,out,up,away(地点副词或副词性小品词)
W-Cl=Interrogative-Clause(疑问词引起的从句,由 whethe r,what,which,who,whom,whose,where,when,why,how 引起)
inn.=innumerable=hundreds or thousands(无数,成百上千)
“.”表示它前后的词构成成语,如IV.P,LV.A.P,TV.N.P,LV.PaP,它们包含2个或3个词。
1341 1个“+”号表示这个句型包含2个基本成分,即主语及不及物动词,如:
S+IV S+IV.AP
2个“+”号表示这个句型包含3个基本成分,即主语、及物动词及宾语,如:
S+TV+N S+IV.P+that-Cl
S+LV.A.P+G
或指另外3个成分,如主语、系动词及补语:
S+LV+A S+LV+that-Cl
S+LV+P.N
3个“+”号表示这个句型包含4个成分,即主语、双宾动词、间接宾语及直接宾语,如:
S+DV+N+N S+DV+N+W-Cl
S+DV+N+that-Cl
也可以是另外4个成分,如主语、宾补动词、宾语及(宾语)补语:
S+FV+N+A S+FV+N+PaP
S+IV.P+N+I
这里我们可以了解到一个十分重要的事实,即英语句子是很简单的,它少则包含2个成分,多则包含4个成分。
了解了公式及图解的意义,现在就可开始借助它们研究47种谓语类型或句型。注意:句子末尾的星号表示将在每一类句型讲完之后对这个句子进行图解。
二、47种谓语类型(附公式及图解)
A.各种不及物动词
1.S+IV(John laughed.)
1342 不及物动词不跟宾语或补语,其数量可谓庞大。
They smiled.* John died.Mary walked slowly.Fire burns.I dreamed last night.He wept bitterly.You must dress for dinner.That depends.It does not pay.
1343 通常跟有宾语的及物动词,如果宾语可以猜出,且着重点不是宾语,而是动词(动作)时,可以把宾语省略,用作不及物动词。
A tractor can cut,push,pull,dig,lift,pump,carry and spray.The blind do not see.We must eat.I will change(my dress).The knife cuts well.I will consider.If time permits.He can read.Don't trouble(yourself).The stain shows(itself).They married(each other).
1344 有些动词用在表示数量的名词前,看起来像及物动词,实际上却是不及物动词。
The thermometer rose(or fell)two degrees.*
He waited ten minutes.The wedding lasted three days.
I walked five miles.
1345 图解:
2.S+IV.AP(John moved in.)
1346 许多不及物动词可以跟特定的地点副词,与之构成成语。但在多数情况下,这些副词并不表示地点,而是有其他意思,因此可以称作副词性小品词(Adverbial Particle)。
a.Don't answer back(=answer rudely)when a superior speaks to you.He backs away(=draws back)from her because he has made her angry.Don't worry,I will never back out(=fail to fulfil a promise).In order to survive,we must band together(=unite).He barged in(=interrupted rudely)while we were talking.The storm will soon blow over(=pass away without injurious effect).The dynamite placed beneath the bridge blew up(=exploded).He blows up(=loses his temper)at every small incident.Quick!The soup is boiling over(=over-flowing the side of a pan).Brace up(=take courage)if you really want to get married.Many prisoners broke away(=suddenly escaped).Our car suddenly broke down(=failed to function)on our way home.A fire broke out(=started suddenly and violently)on Sixth Street.Tears burst forth(=suddenly appeared).
b.She colours up(=blushes)if we mention her love.An accident like this comes about(=happens)every day.My wife and I come together(=are reconciled)after ten years of quarrel.The seeds have come up(=shot up above the ground).When we were talking,a young man came up(=approached).Three days after the quarrel,I cooled down(=became calm).She was shocked at the bill,but she had to cough up(=pay,perhaps unwillingly).Hardly a week had he learned computer science when he cracked up(=suffered a mental breakdown).An error may creep in(=steal in unnoticed).This old empire crumbled away(=disintegrated gradually)because of misrule.I should not take much sugar,but I cannot cut down(=lessen).
c.All members of my family dine out(=eat away from home)every Sunday.They drink liquor every day and cannot do without(=dispense with it).We dressed up(=put on formal clothes)for a banquet.I will drop by(=call casually)when I am free.The production of rice dropped off(=decreased)last year.He dropped out(=left school before finishing his courses)at fifteen.The well has dried up(=become dry).The road is rough,we should ease down(=lessen speed).Let us ease down(=work less,make less effort).His reputation faded out(=gradually disappeared)after his death.The country fell apart(=fell to pieces)because of civil war.I never fall back(=retreat)before difficulties.Our country falls behind(=drops behind)in science and technology.Let us fall to(=begin to eat or to work.)