VII Go to Bristol 第七章 去布里斯托尔途中.38
11.Natural Word-order 自然语序
Inverted Word-order 倒装语序
Inversion 倒装
Full Inversion 完全倒装
Partial Inversion 部分倒装
Ellipsis 省略
Substitution 替代
Transformation of Sentences 句型转换
Analysis of Sentences 句子分析
12.Punctuation 标点符号
Period (Full Stop) 句号
Question Mark 问号
Exclamation Mark 感叹号
Comma 逗号
Semicolon 分号
Colon 冒号
Dash 破折号
Hyphen 连字号
Brackets 括号
Quotation Marks 引号
Apostrophe 撇号
近年来语法科学有较大的进展,加深了我们对语言的认识。有些问题值得我们进一步研究。为了帮助读者了解一些有关语法体系的问题,这里作一些简单的介绍和说明。
1.限定词
近年来不少语法书使用了限定词(Determiner)这个名称,有的人把它们作为一个词类,有的人把它们作为某些词类的总称。它们大致包括以下内容:
1) 冠词:Where should we put the chairs?
2) 物主代词:Here is your luggage.
3) 关系代词:whose 和which (用作定语):
This is the lady whose husband you met yesterday.
Call again at 11, by which time the meeting should be over.
4) 由ever构成的连接代词 (用作定语):
Vote for whichever proposal you think most favourable.
For whatever reason, don't be late again.
Whosever idea this my be, I don't like it.
5) 作定语用的疑问代词:
What colour?
Which information?
Whose ideas are these?
6) 作定语用的some,any,no及enough:
I want some rolls (bread), please.
Have you got any stamps (ink)?
The sign said,"No parking."
We haven't got enough tools (equipment) for the job.
7) 作定语用的指示代词:
Have you read this (that) book?
Have you seen these (those) plays?
8) 作定语用的不定代词each,every,either,neither:
I want to interview each (every) student individually.
You can park on either side.
Neither party accepted the arbitration proposal.
9) 作定语用的不定代词all,both:
All the girls want to come with us.
Both these cars are sold out.
10) 作定语用的不定代词many,much,little,few及several:
He wrote few (a few) books.
There are too many (very few) mistakes in your essay.
She has got little (hasn't got much) money.
Several people volunteered for the work.
11) 作定语用的数词及once,twice,half等词:
Everything was all right in the first two days.
She came down here every three months.
He did it in one-third the time it took me.
I'll be back in half an hour.
这样的区分有一定的好处,但也造成许多问题。许多词(特别是代词)处理起来会更麻烦,作定语时作为限定词,作主语、宾语等时作为代词。如果按照旧的体系,代词大部分都可用作定语,这样就不必分出来讲了,因此我们没有把限定词单列出来。许多字典的处理办法也不一致。不少字典把作定语用的这类代词干脆称为形容词。美国字典大多如此。连许多英国字典,如Longman Modern English Dictionary, Chambers Universal Learners' Dictionary都这样处理。在大家没有取得一致意见以前,我们似以沿用传统做法较为妥当。
2.分词及动名词问题
现在有些语法家主张去掉动名词这一提法,把现在分词和动名词统称为-ing分词(-ing participle)。把过去分词称为-ed分词(-ed participle),也同时使用现在分词和过去分词这两个名词。这样实际上只会造成混乱。大量过去分词是不规则的,根本不是靠加-ed构成的,却把它们称作-ed分词,这是牵强的。现在分词和过去分词在用法上有许多共同之处,称它们为分词是有道理的,而动名词却起着完全不同的作用,硬要把它和现在分词拉在一起,这是并不科学也不现实的。因此多数语法书仍保留了动名词的名称,尤其是在中国,我们使用了“动名?”这个名称,充分说明了它的特点,即在句中起名词的作用。在实际教学中,有这个名称很方便,并不构成负担,若把它取消,反倒会造成不便。当然,我们也要看到动名词和现在分词也有相通之处,在有些情况下一个动词的-ing形式,说它是动名词或是分词都可以,如:
这时就不宜细抠。在不少情况下,我们也可避免动名词这个名称,例如可以说,在不少动词后都跟动词的-ing形式,如:
I enjoyed working here.
Stop talking.
这样就可省去许多麻烦。
3.助动词及情态动词问题
有些语法家把助动词和情态动词的讲法作了一些调整。do,have,be仍称助动词,下面这些统称 情态助动词(Modal Auxiliaries),也称 情态动词(Modal Verbs):
这样做有一定道理。另外他们还增加了一些东西:
1)情态短语(Modal Idioms): had better, would rather, would sooner, be to, have got to.
2)半助动词(Semi-auxiliaries): have to, be about to, be able to, be bound to, be going to, be likely to, be obliged to, be supposed to, be willing to, be apt to, be due to, be meant to, etc.
3)关联动词结构(Catenative Verb Construction): appear to, happen to, seem to, get+过去分词, keep+动词的-ing形式, get to, come to, turn out to, tend to, manage to, fail to, etc.
这样处理对掌握这类结构有一定帮助,但怎样和助动词及情态动词联系起来还值得研究。我们是在句法部分处理该问题的,把它们和后面跟的不定式称为复合谓语,这样做也可达到同样的目的。这类谓语常可译为一个汉语动词:
How did you get to know him? 你怎么认识他的?
You'll come to like the place. 你会喜欢这地方的。
She failed to turn up. 她没能来。
We managed to get a ticket. 我们设法搞到了一张票。
You're supposed to be back at 9. 你应该在九点钟回来。
I am willing to help. 我愿意帮忙。
She happened to be in. 她恰好在家。
It turned out (to be) quite successful. 结果很成功。
She's due to arrive tomorrow. 她定于明天到达。
把这类谓语作为整体来看待是符合思维逻辑的。
4.关于词类的划分问题
关于词类有许多划分方法。现在举出几种分法:
1) 《综合英语语法》的分法(保留原来例词):
(1)介词:of,at,in,without,in spite of
(2)代词:he,they,anybody,one,which
(3)限定词:the,a,that,every,some
(4)连词:and,that,when,although
(5)情态动词:can,must,will,could
(6)助动词:be,have do(原名为Primary Verb)
(7)名词:John,room,answer,play
(8)形容词:happy,steady,new,large,round
(9)完全动词(full verb):search,grow,play
(10)副词:steadily,completely,really
(11)数词:one,two,three;first,second,third
(12)感叹词:oh,ah,ugh,phew
(外加否定词not,不定式标记词to等特殊词)
2) 《大学英语语法》的分法 (该书的两位作者也是上书的作者):
(1)名词:John,room,answer,play
(2)形容词:happy,steady,new,large,round
(3)副词:steadily,completely,really,very,then
(4)动词:search,grow,play,be,have,do
(5)冠词:the,a(n)
(6)指示词:that,this
(7)代词:he,they,anybody,one,which
(8)介词:of,at,in,without,in spite of
(9)连词:and,that,when,although
(10)感叹词:oh,ah,ugh,phew
3) 美国出的《英语语法与作文》的分法(例词从所给词中挑出):
(1)名词:Chicago,girl,army,city
(2)代词:he,some,who,those
(3)形容词:green,late,lazy,rich
(4)动词:lose,grow,will,must
(5)副词:beautifully,now,usually,how
(6)介词:across,by,through,toward
(7)连词:after,if,when,where
(8)感叹词:ouch,ah,well,hurrah
(另一个美国出的Index to Modern English也是这样分法。)通过对比,我们不难看出怎样区分词类比较合理。
5.关于时态问题
现在某些语法家在讲时态时,提出了三个概念:一是时间,这是客观存在的;二是时态,这是指语言表示动作时间的形式;三是体(aspect),指动作表现的方式,如表示它正在进行,则用进行体,表示动作已完成,则用完成体。在观念上这样提还是可以的,但实际上时态还是得一个一个地讲。以《大学英语语法》为例,仍是按下列顺序讲:
1) 现在时:简单现在时,现在进行时
2) 过去时:简单过去时,过去进行时,现在完成时,过去完成时,过去进行时
3) 完成进行时:现在完成进行时
4) 将来时
5) 过去将来时
讲得清不清楚不说,也看不出有太大特色。
《交际英语语法》开头提到了“?”,到后来仍是一个个时态讲,仍然使用传统名词(简单现在时、现在进行时、简单过去进行时、现在完成时等等)。因此在时态的讲解体系上没有必要作大的变动。事实上各个时态的用法都是历史实践中发展过来,用简单的几条去套是困难的。我们的办法是反映实际使用的情况,逐个解决。
6.关于语气的问题
虚拟语气是一个引起争议的问题。究竟哪些动词形式算虚拟语气?这里我们把几家的说法作个简单的介绍。著名语法学家Zandvoort认为以下两类为虚拟语气:
1) 不带-s词尾的原形动词:
a. Joanna had insisted that he come.
An army lieutenant demanded that the flag be lowered.
b. Though everyone desert you, I will not.
If two angles of a triangle be equal to one another...
Be that as it may, little had been said about her husband.
2) were:
She looked as though she were fainting.
I wish it were over.
If I were you, I should go.
She is, as it were, my second self.
他认为虚拟语气表示愿望(wish)、可能性(possibility)和非真实情况(irreality)。
而Eckersley则认为虚拟语气有下列几类:
1) 现在虚拟语气(The Present Subjunctive):
(1) 表示愿望和祈祷:
God save the Queen.
Heaven forbid that...
Heaven help us.
Be that as it may...
(2) 用在某些动词后的从句中:
It is our wish that he do what he pleases.
She urged that he write and accept the post.
I propose that the secretary's resignation be accepted.
The King ordered that the man be released.
(3) 偶尔用在让步状语从句及条件状语从句中:
Though the whole world condemns him, I will still believe in him.
This, if the news be true, is a very serious matter.
2) 过去虚拟语气(The Past Subjunctive):
(1) 用于虚拟条件句:
If I were you, I should accept the offer.
What would you say if I asked you to join us for a holiday?
(2) 用在某些词语后:
I wish I were as handsome as he is.
I wish he visited us more often.
Suppose (that) the teacher caught us wasting time.
I had rather (that) you told him than (that) I did.
He ran as if his life depended on it.
It is (high) time I went home.
3) 过去完成虚拟语气(The Past Perfect Subjunctive):
I wish I had been at the seaside.
虚拟条件句中从句的谓语他认为也是虚拟语气。他说:“在第二类句子(假想条件句)中,在if引导的从句中用过去虚拟语气,在主句中谓语由would或should加不定式构成?”他举的例子是:
If the grass needed cutting, I would cut it.
If John had worked hard, he would have passed the examination.
If our train were to arrive punctually, we should have time to visit your sister.
Were John here now, he would explain the whole matter.
Had you asked me, I would have told you the answer.
I will go, should it be necessary.
从上面介绍的情况看,他心目中的虚拟语气比Zandvoort包含得更广一些。
最后再介绍Quirk等人在《综合英语语法》中的讲解。他们也提出了:
1) 现在虚拟语气:
If any person be found guilty, he shall have the right of appeal.
Whether she be right or wrong, she will have my unswerving support.
Though he be the President himself, he shall hear us.
Congress has voted that the present law be maintained.
We insisted that he leave at once.
It is essential that a meeting be convened this week.
Our decision is that the school remain closed.
2) 过去虚拟语气:
I wish she were not married.
If only I were not so nervous.
If she were here, she would speak on my behalf.
Suppose we were lost.
The stuffed dog barked as if it were a real one.
I'd rather I were in bed.
虚拟条件句中的动词形式,他们称为假想的过去形式(The Hypothetic Past)和假想的过去完成形式(Hypothetic Past Perfect)。但在索引中仍归在虚拟语气下面。
在《如何准备托福考试》(How to Prepare for the TOEFL)一书中,把虚拟语气分为下面几类(例句都是原书中的):
1) 表示与事实相反的情况 (即虚拟条件句):
If he were older, we could take him with us.
If I had the time, I'd take a vacation.
If she had been here, she could have shown you.
If I had had the time, I'd have taken the vacation.
2) 表示愿望:
I wish he were old enough to go with us.
I wish she had been here yesterday.
3) 用于某些句型:
He acts as if he were older.
It is important that he exercise every day.
他们处理得比较简单,但代表了一般教师的看法。
综上所述,我们处理的办法与他们基本上是一致的。只是范围略为拓宽了一点,把could,might等用来表示现在情况的句子也归入此类。这是因为它们不受时态规律的约束,而且接近一个含蓄条件句(如I would like to go with you.可改为I would like to go with you if I might.),放在这里处理至少是比较方便的。另外,should+不定式这种结构,Quirk等人称为“假定式的shoul?”(Putative should),把这类结构放在虚拟语气一起讲,可以简化头绪。虚拟语气究竟怎样处理最好,还需要大家来作进一步的研究。
7.短语和从句的问题
传统语法对短语和从句是有明确的界限的,现在使用的大多数语法和教科书也是这样处理的。但现在有些语法学家却有些新的讲法,他们把许多短语都称作从句,如现在分词从句、过去分词从句及不定式从句等:
Entering the house, he tripped over the mat.
Covered with confusion, she hurriedly left the room.
The best thing would be to tell everybody.
The job finished, we went home straight away.
这些他们称作非限定从句(Non-finite Clauses),下分分词从句、不定式从句等。他们甚至还提出无动词从句(Verbless Clauses),如:
By then nervous, the men opened the letter.
Long and untidy, his hair waved in the breeze.
The oranges, when ripe, are picked and sorted.
他们这样做有一定的道理,这类短语在概念上很接近从句,很多可以改为从句。但谈句法问题时主要还应从结构上去看,如果结构上是短语(没有自己的主语谓语),还是以不说成从句为好,否则容易引起混乱。
8.补语、表语和状语的问题
句中我们称作表语的部分,西方语法学家多数称为补语(Complement)。我们保留了表语这个名称原因有二,一是它更好表明它的特点(说明主语的情况),二是它的英文名称Predicative和谓语的英文名称Predicate有更紧密的联系。当然叫它补语也未尝不可。不过有些语法学家(如Greenbaum等),把更多的东西都称作补语,如:
1) 形容词补语(Adjective Complements):
2) 介词补语(Prepositional Complements):
这样一来补语的概念就不明确了。
系动词后面跟的成分,我们都称作表语,当然也可叫作补语。其中有一种表示地点等的介词短语或副词,有些语法学家称之为状语:
Your children are outside.
The next meeting will be on the 5th of February.
He's off cigarettes.
The road is under construction.
Payment is by cash only.
Jack and Nora are with me.
Quirk等人称之为与主语有关的状语(Subject related adverbial)。有些称为状语是有道理的,如头两个例子,变为问句可用when,there开始:
Where are my children?
When will the next meeting be?
后面的句子就难说了。他们自己也认为这种状语和表语的界限很不清楚。因此我们主张不作这样的区分,统统称为表语,对学习可能更有利一些。
9.状语从句和宾语从句的问题
在“be+形容?”结构后的从句是宾语还是状语,历来都是一个有争议的问题。主张是宾语的人是从概念上去考虑的,如:
I am sure we are right.
(比较:I know for sure we are right.)
She is convinced (that) you are the right person for the job.
(比较:She believes that you are the right person for the job.)
但这样做有一定的困难,因为只有及物动词才有宾语,be sure和be convinced都不是及物动词。主张作状语的人是从结构上考虑。试比较下面句子:
I was pleased to see her. (不定式作状语)
I was pleased with the result. (介词短语作状语)
I was pleased that they had decided to come.
三者比较起来,说从句作状语似乎更好一些。而且that引导从句作状语的时候是很多的,如:
Bring it closer that I may see it better.
What was the matter with the fellow that he looked so happy.
He ran with such a speed that I could not catch him.
当然也可以回避这个问题,Quirk等提出的办法,称它们为形容词的补语,也许是一个可行的办法。
10.各类英语的问题
世界上有数以亿计的人使用英语,但不同的人在不同场合使用的英语是不尽相同的。但各类英语都有些共同的东西,可称为共同核心英语(The Common Core)。我们学英语主要是或者首先是学习这一部分英语。例如children这个词就属于这个范畴,学会它之后再了解kids在日常口语中可用来代替children,在较文气的语言中可用offspring这个词。另外,比较下面三个句子:
Feeling tired, John went to bed early.
John went to bed early because he felt tired.
John felt tired, so he went to bed early.
第二句属于共同核心英语这个范畴,在书面语和口语中都可以使用。第一句则比较文气,主要用在书面语言中。第三句是比较随便的说法,很可能出现在轻松的谈话之中。本书中大部分属于核心英语范畴,有些则分属书面语或口语范畴。比较突出的都已点出(如带主语的分词短语),有些本身就很明显,稍加注意可以看出。
大体说来,学英语时要注意下面这些不同类型的语言:
1) 书面语与口语:
一般说来书面语比较规范,结构比较严谨,口语则比较简短,结构比较松散,甚至中间夹有各种插入语,有时只说半句话又转入另一句,省略句较多。有的人还会夹杂俚语方言,这都会构成理解的障碍。
大家只要阅读一本知识性的书(如历史、地理、政治、经济),不难体会书面语的特点。反过来看一些剧本或是读一些小说中的对话,也不难看出口语的特点。
2) 正式场合及非正式场合用的英语:
正式场合用的英语,字典及语法中都标为formal,可以是书面的,如报告、商业书信、条规等中用的语言。比较规范,有时甚至比较文气。口头上也可使用这种语言如演讲、讲课、正式作报告等。非正规场合使用的英语,指的是比较随便的英语,口头上用得最多,写信、甚至写文章也可能用这种语言。字典和语法书上多标作informal。这里举些例子说明两者的差异:
When his dad died, Peter had to get another job.
After his father's death, Peter had to change his job.
On the decease of his father, Mr Brown was obliged to seek alternative employment.
第一句为informal的语言,第三句为formal的语言,第二句介乎两者之间,可说属于the common core。另外再看下面这几对句子:
另外,很多成语动词也都表现了informal English的特点,例如:
formal informal
discover find out
explode blow up
encounter come across
invent make up
tolerate put up with
investigate look into
另外在结构上也有些差别,例如:
一般说来,informal language就是指口语体的语言(Colloquial Language),formal language多有些文气,书面上用得比较多。但现在书面语言也在变化,有些人写作也多避免太文气的语言,而使文体显得比较轻松随便平易易懂,甚至在大学课堂讲课都比以前更加随便。
3) 英国英语及美国英语:
美国英语是从英国英语发展而来的,基本是一种语言,但毕竟还有一些差别,主要表现在下面几方面:
(1)语音:最大的差别是在元音后的r,在英国英语中不发音,而在美国英语中发音,如bird,在英国读为[bɜːd],而在美国读为[bɜːrd],letter在英国读为[ˈletə],在美国读为[ˈletər]。另外,不少在英国读为[ɑː]的音节,在美国读为[æ],如glass,bathroom在美国分别读为[glæs]和[ˈbæθrʊm]。此外,某些元音音素两国的读法也有一定的差别,特别是字母o的短音,英语读[ɒ],美国接近[ɑ],如God.
(2)语法:总的说来差别不大,但也有少许差别,例如动词have的否定及疑问形式,shall, will的用法,加词尾时1是否要双写,两国间是有差别的。又如:
随着两国交往的日益密切、电视节目的相互影响,这方面的差别是越来越小了。
(3)词汇:这方面是有些差别的,一是在拼法上有些差别,如color(美)与colour(英);program(美)与programme(英);grey(英)与gray(美);center(英)与centre(美);cheque(英)与check(美);axe(英)与ax(美)等等。但更多是在用词上的差别,如:
英国英语 美国英语
商店 shop store
汽油 petrol gas
电影院 cinema movie theater
铁路 railway railroad
裤子 trousers pants
单元住宅 flat apartment
地铁 underground subway
出租汽车 taxi cab
出纳员 cashier teller
罐头 tin can
分数 marks grades
飞机 (aero)plane airplane
(电视)天线 TV aerial antenna
留声机 gramophone phonograph
人行道 pavement sidewalk
钱包 handbag, bag purse
糖果 sweets candies
电影 film movie
球赛 match game
邮件 the post the mail
监狱 prison jail
垃圾 rubbish garbage
秋天 autumn the fall
电梯 elevator lift
车胎 tyre tire
上衣 jacket coat
生病 ill sick