“赢在起跑线”的教育狂潮
3 把这个计划付诸实施：波尔加姐妹的生活在许多书籍和文章中都有记载。关于本章的细节，除了对苏珊·波尔加的采访外，最有用的来源包括：Y. Aviram (director), The Polgar Variant (Israel: Lama Films, 2014); S. Polgar with P. Truong, Breaking Through: How the Polgar Sisters Changed the Game of Chess (London: Everyman Chess, 2005); C. Flora, “The Grandmaster Experiment,” Psychology Today, July 2005, online ed.; P. Voosen, “Bringing Up Genius: Is Every Healthy Child a Potential Prodigy?,” Chronicle of Higher Education, November 8, 2015, online ed.; C. Forbes, The Polgar Sisters (New York: Henry Holt, 1992).
3 “遇到了一个有趣的人”：Polgar with Truong, Breaking Through.
4 “灰色的凡夫俗子”：People staff, “Nurtured to Be Geniuses, Hungary’s Polgar Sisters Put Winning Moves on Chess Masters,” People, May 4, 1987.
4 “国际象棋的结果非常客观”：L. Myers, “Trained to Be a Genius, Girl, 16, Wallops Chess Champ Spassky for $110,000,” Chicago Tribune, February 18, 1993.
5 “绝对组”：Aviram, The Polgar Variant.
6 癌症和艾滋病：W. Hartston, “A Man with a Talent for Creating Genius,” Independent, January 12, 1993.
8 “完全没有联系”：“Daniel Kahneman—Biographical,” Nobelprize .org, Nobel Media AB 2014. 2015年12月，我有幸在午餐时与卡尼曼讨论了他的生活和工作。更多细节可以参见他的书《思考，快与慢》Thinking, Fast and Slow (New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 2011).
8 让他“印象深刻”：给卡尼曼留下深刻印象的其他相关的书包括：Paul E. Meehl, Clinical Versus Statistical Prediction (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1954). 米尔启发了大量研究，表明专家往往凭借经验获得信心，而不是技能。对其中一些工作的出色评论有：C. F. Camerer and E. J. Johnson, “The Process-Performance Paradox in Expert Judgment: How Can Experts Know So Much and Predict So Badly?,” in Toward a General Theory of Expertise, ed. K. A. Ericsson and Jacqui Smith (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991).
8 2009年，卡尼曼和克莱恩：D. Kahneman and G. Klein, “Conditions for Intuitive Expertise: A Failure to Disagree,” American Psychologist 64, no. 6 (2009): 515—26.
8 “友好型”学习环境：Robin Hogarth’s fantastic book on learning environments is Educating Intuition (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2001).
9 “还要可怕的病毒携带者”：L. Thomas, The Youngest Science (New York: Penguin, 1995), 22.
10 1997……终极之战：Kasparov was on the cover of the May 5, 1997, Newsweek, with the headline, “The Brain’s Last Stand.”
10 “现在你手机里的免费国际象棋应用程序”：卡斯帕罗夫和他的副助手米格·格林加德非常友好地回答了我的问题。更多信息来自卡斯帕罗夫2017年6月5日在乔治城大学的一次演讲，以及卡斯帕罗夫和格林加德的书《深度思考》Deep Thinking (New York: PublicAffairs, 2017).
10 “你就可以走得更远”：S. Polgar and P. Truong, Chess Tactics for Champions (New York: Random House Puzzles & Games, 2006), x.
11 “人类创造力的重要性比以往更加显著”；“我在战术计算上的优势”：Kasparov and Greengard, Deep Thinking.
11 自由式国际象棋：有关人机国际象棋合作关系的精彩讨论，请参见：T. Cowen, Average is Over (New York: Dutton, 2013).
12 他的队友尼尔森·埃尔南德斯：埃尔南德斯友好地进行了长时间的问答交流，向我解释了自由式国际象棋的细微差别，并为我提供了关于锦标赛的文件。他估计威廉姆斯在传统国际象棋中的Elo评分将在1800分左右。
12 2007年，国家地理频道：这个节目叫作《我的非凡大脑》（My Brilliant Brain）。
13 第一个实验发生在20世纪40年代：A. D. de Groot, Thought and Choice in Chess (Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2008).
13 增加了一些难度：Chase and Simon’s chunking theory: W. G. Chase and H. A. Simon, “Perception in Chess,” Cognitive Psychology 4 (1973): 55—81.
15 如果不在十二岁之前开始严格的训练：F. Gobet and G. Campitelli, “The Role of Domain-Specific Practice, Handedness, and Starting Age in Chess,” Developmental Psychology 43 (2007): 159—72. 有关个人进步的不同速率，请参见： G. Campitelli and F. Gobet, “The Role of Practice in Chess: A Longitudinal Study,” Learning and Individual Differences 18, no. 4 (2007): 446—58.
15 特雷费特（Darold Treffert）对于“专才”的研究：特雷费特与我分享了他自己文献库中关于学者的视频。他的《孤岛天才》一书(London: Jessica Kingsley Publishers, 2012)很好地记述了他的研究。
16 “我听到的东西太不现实了”：A. Ockelford, “Another Exceptional Musical Memory,” in Music and the Mind, ed. I. Deliège, and J. W. Davidson (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011). 其他关于无调音乐的文献包括：L. K. Miller, Musical Savants (Hove, East Sussex: Psychology Press, 1989); B. Hermelin et al., “Intelligence and Musical Improvisation,” Psychological Medicine 19 (1989): 447—57.
16 对艺术类的专家进行类似测试时——给他们快速看一些图片：N. O’Connor and B. Hermelin, “Visual and Graphic Abilities of the Idiot-Savant Artist,” Psychological Medicine 17 (1987): 79—90. (Treffert has helped replace the term “idiot-savant” with “savant syndrome.”) 还可参见：E. Winner, Gifted Children: Myths and Realities (New York: BasicBooks, 1996), ch. 5.
17 阿尔法元的程序员自豪地宣称：D. Silver et al., “Mastering Chess and Shogi by Self-Play with a General Reinforcement Learning Algorithm,” arXiv (2017): 1712.01815.
17 “在特别专业化的世界里”： 除了对加里·马库斯的采访外，我还参考了他2017年6月7日在日内瓦“AI for Good”全球峰会上演讲的视频，以及他的几篇论文和散文：“Deep Learning: A Critical Appraisal,” arXiv: 1801.00631; “In Defense of Skepticism About Deep Learning,” Medium, January 14, 2018; “Innateness, AlphaZero, and Artificial Intelligence,” arXiv: 1801.05667.
18 IBM的人工智能代表“沃森”：要平衡地看待沃森在医疗保健领域面临的挑战——从一位批评人士称其为“笑话”，到其他人认为它与最初的炒作相去甚远，但它的存在确实有价值，请参见：D. H. Freedman, “A Reality Check for IBM’s AI Ambitions,” MIT Technology Review, June 27, 2017, online ed.
18 “在《危险边缘！》获胜和治愈所有癌症的区别”：这位肿瘤学家是维奈·普拉萨德医生（Dr. Vinay Prasad）。他在一次采访中对我说了这句话，并在推特上分享了这一点。
18 权威学术杂志《自然》（Nature）刊载了一篇报道：J. Ginsberg et al., “Detecting Influenza Epidemics Using Search Engine Query Data,” Nature 457 (2009): 1012—14.
18 病例数的两倍：D. Butler, “When Google Got Flu Wrong,” Nature 494 (2013): 155—56; D. Lazer et al., “The Parable of Google Flu: Traps in Big Data Analysis,” Science 343 (2014): 1203—5.
19 “他们工作的本质”：C. Argyris, “Teaching Smart People How to Learn,” Harvard Business Review, May–June 1991.
19 施瓦茨的论文副标题：B. Schwartz, “Reinforcement-Induced Behavioral Stereotypy: How Not to Teach People to Discover Rules,” Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 111, no. 1 (1982):23—59.
21 “变革者”：E. Winner, “Child Prodigies and Adult Genius: A Weak Link,” in The Wiley Handbook of Genius, ed. D. K. Simonton (Malden, MA: John Wiley & Sons, 2014).
21 会计师和桥牌选手：除了卡尼曼和克莱恩的“对抗性协作”论文和霍格斯的教育直觉之外，还有一个有价值的参考来源是：J. Shanteau, “Competence in Experts: The Role of Task Characteristics,” Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 53 (1992): 252—62.
21 “稳定的统计学规律”：Kahneman, Thinking, Fast and Slow.
21 在一项关于桥牌的研究中：P. A. Frensch and R. J. Sternberg, “Expertise and Intelligent Thinking: When Is It Worse to Know Better?” in Advances in the Psychology of Human Intelligence, vol. 5, ed. R. J. Sternberg (New York: Psychology Press, 1989).
21 经验丰富的会计师；“认知壁垒”；“把一只脚踏出你的世界”：E. Dane, “Reconsidering the Trade-Off Between Expertise and Flexibility,” Academy of Management Review 35, no. 4 (2010): 579—603. 有关专家灵活性和顽固性的一般性讨论，请参见：P. J. Feltovich et al., “Issues of Expert Flexibility in Contexts Characterized by Complexity and Change,” in Expertise in Context, ed. P. J. Feltovich et al. (Cambridge, MA: AAAI Press/MIT Press, 1997); and F. Gobet, Understanding Expertise (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2016).
21 诺贝尔奖获得者……至少……：R. Root-Bernstein et al., “Arts Foster Scientific Success: Avocations of Nobel, National Academy, Royal Society and Sigma Xi Members,” Journal of Psychology of Science and Technology 1, no. 2 (2008): 51—63; R. Root-Bernstein et al., “Correlations Between Avocations, Scientific Style, Work Habits, and Professional Impact of Scientists,” Creativity Research Journal 8, no. 2 (1995): 115—37.
21 “对于不了解这一点的人来说”：S. Ramón y Cajal, Precepts and Counsels on Scientific Investigation (Mountain View, CA: Pacific Press Publishing Association, 1951).
22 那些对自身领域缺乏创造性贡献的人：A. Rothenberg, A Flight from Wonder: An Investigation of Scientific Creativity (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015).
22 “而不会沉溺于一个狭隘的话题”：D. K. Simonton, “Creativity and Expertise: Creators Are Not Equivalent to Domain-Specific Experts!,” in The Science of Expertise, ed. D. Hambrick et al. (New York: Routledge, 2017 ［Kindle ebook］).
22 “当我们在设计”：史蒂夫·乔布斯2005年在斯坦福大学的毕业演讲：https://news.stanford.edu/2005/06/14/jobs-061505.
22 “没有其他人同时对这两个领域都熟悉”：J. Horgan, “Claude Shannon: Tinkerer, Prankster, and Father of Information Theory,” IEEE Spectrum 29, no. 4 (1992): 72—75. For more depth on Shannon, see J. Soni and R. Goodman, A Mind at Play (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2017).
23 “职业渠道”；“在八车道的高速公路上开车”：C. J. Connolly, “Transition Expertise: Cognitive Factors and Developmental Processes That Contribute to Repeated Successful Career Transitions Amongst Elite Athletes, Musicians and Business People” (PhD thesis, Brunel University, 2011).
