学习，快与慢
73 “准备好了吗？假设你们将要到现场去看一场费城老鹰队的比赛”：课堂场景来自“国际数学与科学研究趋势”（TIMSS）的视频、文字记录和分析。具体的视频是“M-US2编写变量表达式”。
74 “我刚才所举的3美元热狗的例子”：老师说错了话，她说了“两个”。为了清晰起见，正文已更正。
76 “使用过程”；“建立联系”：J. Hiebert et al., “Teaching Mathematics in Seven Countries,” National Center for Education Statistics, 2003, chap. 5.
78 bansho：E.R.A. Kuehnert et al. “Bansho: Visually Sequencing Mathematical Ideas,” Teaching Children Mathematics 24, no. 6 (2018): 362—69.
78 “学生们无法把数学看作一个系统”：L. E. Richland et al., “Teaching the Conceptual Structure of Mathematics,” Educational Psychology 47, no. 3 (2012): 189—203.
80 在布朗克斯南部测试了六年级学生的词汇学习情况：N. Kornell and J. Metcalfe, “The Effects of Memory Retrieval, Errors and Feedback on Learning,” in Applying Science of Learning in Education, V.A. Benassi et al., ed. (Society for the Teaching of Psychology, 2014); J. Metcalfe and N. Kornell, “Principles of Cognitive Science in Education,” Psychonomic Bulletin and Review 14, no. 2 (2007): 225—29.
80 “矫枉过正现象”：T. S. Eich et al., “The Hypercorrection Effect in Younger and Older Adults,” Neuropsychology, Development and Cognition. Section B, Aging, Neuropsychology and Cognition 20, no. 5 (2013): 511—21; J. Metcalfe et al., “Neural Correlates of People’s Hypercorrection of Their False Beliefs,” Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 24, no. 7 (2012): 1571—83.
80 奥比隆和迈克达夫：N. Kornell and H. S. Terrace, “The Generation Effect in Monkeys,” Psychological Science 18, no. 8 (2007): 682—85.
82 “就像在生活中”：N. Kornell et al., “Retrieval Attempts Enhance Learning, but Retrieval Success (Versus Failure) Does Not Matter,” Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 41, no. 1 (2015): 283—94.
83 西班牙语学习者：H. P. Bahrick and E. Phelps, “Retention of Spanish Vocabulary over 8 Years,” Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 13, no. 2 (1987): 344—49.
83 艾奥瓦州的研究人员给受试者念了一组单词：L. L. Jacoby and W. H. Bartz, “Rehearsal and Transfer to LTM,” Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 11 (1972): 561—65.
83 “这种对知识即时且高水平的掌握让学习者产生误解”：N. J. Cepeda et al., “Spacing Effects in Learning,” Psychological Science 19, no. 11 (2008): 1095—1102.
84 2007年，美国教育部发表了一份报告：H. Pashler et al., “Organizing Instruction and Study to Improve Student Learning,” National Center for Education Research, 2007.
84 一项非常特殊的研究：S. E. Carrell and J. E. West, “Does Professor Quality Matter?,” Journal of Political Economy 118, no. 3 (2010): 409—32.
86 在意大利的博科尼大学也有类似的实验：M. Braga et al., “Evaluating Students’ Evaluations of Professors,” Economics of Education Review 41 (2014): 71—88.
86 “合意难度”：R. A. Bjork, “Institutional Impediments to Effective Training,” in Learning, Remembering, Believing: Enhancing Human Performance, ed. D. Druckman and R. A. Bjork (Washington, DC: National Academies Press, 1994), 295—306.
86 “纵观整个学习过程，最重要的一点是”：C. M. Clark and R. A. Bjork, “When and Why Introducing Difficulties and Errors Can Enhance Instruction,” in Applying the Science of Learning in Education, ed. V. A. Benassi et al. (Society for the Teaching of Psychology, 2014 ［ebook］).
86—87 在接受调查时声称：C. Rampell, “Actually, Public Education is Getting Better, Not Worse,” Washington Post, September 18, 2014.
87 学校并没有变得更糟；“越来越多的高薪工作”：G. Duncan and R. J. Murnane, Restoring Opportunity (Cambridge, MA: Harvard Education Press, 2014 ［Kindle ebook］).
89 另一项研究选择的是大学数学问题：D. Rohrer and K. Taylor, “The Shuffling of Mathematics Problems Improves Learning,” Instructional Science 35 (2007): 481—98.
89 从辨别蝴蝶类型的研究者，到诊断心理障碍的医生：M. S. Birnbaum et al., “Why Interleaving Enhances Inductive Learning,” Memory and Cognition 41 (2013): 392—402.
89 一项针对海军防空模拟练习的研究：C. L. Holladay and M.A. Quiñones, “Practice Variability and Transfer of Training,” Journal of Applied Psychology 88, no. 6 (2003): 1094—1103.
89 在科内尔和比约克关于交叉练习的一项研究中，80%的学生：N. Kornell and R. A. Bjork, “Learning Concepts and Categories: Is Spacing the ‘Enemy of Induction’?,” Psychological Science 19, no. 6 (2008): 585—92.
89 用左手横跨15个琴键：M. Bangert et al., “When Less of the Same Is More: Benefits of Variability of Practice in Pianists,” Proceedings of the International Symposium on Performance Science (2013): 117—22.
90 奥尼尔应该停止在罚球线上练习罚球：比约克在丹尼尔·科伊尔（Daniel Coyle）的《一万小时天才理论》The Talent Code (New York: Bantam, 2009)一书中提出了这个建议。
90 这也是专家解决问题的标志：See, for example: M.T.H. Chi et al., “Categorization and Representation of Physics Problems by Experts and Novices,” Cognitive Science 5, no. 2 (1981): 121—52; and J. F. Voss et al., “Individual Differences in the Solving of Social Science Problems,” in Individual Differences in Cognition, vol. 1, ed. R. F. Dillon and R. R. Schmeck (New York: Academic Press, 1983).
90 研究了67个旨在提升学业表现的儿童早教项目：D. Bailey et al., “Persistence and Fadeout in Impacts of Child and Adolescent Interventions,” Journal of Research on Educational Effectiveness 10, no. 1 (2017): 7—39.
91 学会走路：S. G. Paris, “Reinterpreting the Development of Reading Skills,” Reading Research Quarterly 40, no. 2 (2005): 184—202.
