[7] 这一现象被称为“中等收入陷阱”，将在本书第7章详细探讨。
[8] Ryan Banerjee and Boris Hofmann,“The Rise of Zombie Firms: Causes and Consequences,” BIS Quarterly Review （September 2018）:67 -78, https: //www. bis. org/ publ/ qtrpdf/ r_qt1809g. pdf.
[9] Ricardo J. Caballero, Emmanuel Farhi, and Pierre-Olivier Gourinchas,“Rents,Technical Change, and Risk Premia Accounting for Secular Trends in Interest Rates, Returns on Capital, Earning Yields, and Factor Shares,” American Economic Review 107, no. 5（2017）:614 -620.
[10] Nicholas Bloom, Charles I. Jones, John Van Reenen, and Michael Webb,“Are Ideas Getting Harder to Find?” American Economic Review 110, no. 4（2020）:1104 -1144.
[11] Charles I. Jones,“R&D-Based Models of Economic Growth,” Journal of Political Economy 103, no. 4（1995）:759 -784.
[12] Ufuk Akcigit and William R. Kerr,“Growth through Heterogeneous Innovations,”Journal of Political Economy 126, no. 4（2018）:1374 -1443.
[13] David Byrne, Stephen Oliner, and Daniel Sichel,“How Fast Are Semiconductor Prices Falling?” Review of Income and Wealth 64, no. 3（2018）:679 -702.
[14] John Sutton, Sunk Costs and Market Structure : Price Competition : Advertising,and the Evolution of Concentration （Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1991）.
[15] Hal R. Varian,“Intelligent Technology,” in special issue“Smart Technology Takes Flight,” Finance & Development （IMF quarterly report）53, no. 3（2016）:6 -9, https: // www. imf. org/ external/ pubs/ ft/ fandd/ 2016 /09 / pdf/ fd0916. pdf.
[16] David M. Byrne, John G. Fernald, and Marshall B. Reinsdorf,“Does the United States Have a Productivity Slowdown or a Measurement Problem?” Brookings Paperson Economic Activity 1（2016）:109 -182.
[17] Chad Syverson,“Challenges to Mismeasurement Explanations for the US Productivity Slowdown,” Journal of Economic Perspectives 31, no. 2（2017）:165 -186.
[18] Philippe Aghion, Antonin Bergeaud, Timo Boppart, Peter J. Klenow, and HuiyuLi, “Missing Growth from Creative Destruction,” American Economic Review 109, no. 8（2019）:2795 -2822.
[19] 美国等许多国家采用这一方法，但法国等国却较少采用。
[20] 这个例子来自如下论文: Philippe Aghion, Antonin Bergeaud, Timo Boppart,Peter J. Klenow, and Huiyu Li, “Missing Growth from Creative Destruction,”American Economic Review 109, no. 8（2019）:2795 -2822.
[21] Philippe Aghion, Antonin Bergeaud, Timo Boppart, and Simon Bunel, “Firm Dynamics and Growth Measurement in France,” Journal of the European Economic Association 16, no. 4（2018）:933 -956.
[22] 对此问题的另一看法，可参阅Stephen Redding的论文，尤其是Stephen J. Redding and David E. Weinstein,“Measuring Aggregate Price Indexes with Taste Shocks: Theory and Evidence for CES Preferences”（NBER Working Paper No. 22479, National Bureau of Economic Research,Cambridge, MA,2016）.
[23] Thomas Philippon, The Great Reversal : How America Gave Up on Free Markets（Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2019）.
[24] 还有两种同样采用创造性破坏范式的思路值得关注。第一种来自ErnestLiu、Atif Mian和Amir Sufi。他们强调，过去20年利率持续走低提高了成为领先企业的现值，因而提高了企业扩大对其他企业的技术优势的现有收益。于是，利率下跌促使各个产业的领先企业为巩固其地位而更多开展创新，给普通企业的创新造成打击。产业集中度随之提高，总创新和总增长率却可能下降。可参见Ernest Liu, Atif Mian, and Amir Sufi,“Low Interest Rates, Market Power, and Productivity Growth”（NBER Working Paper No. 25505, National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, MA, June 2019）.第二种思路来自: Laurent Cavenaile、Murat Alp Celik和Xu Tian。他们强调，生产与创新集中度提高有利于超级明星企业，却伴随着整体研发效率降低。可参见Laurent Cavenaile, Murat Alp Celik, and Xu Tian,“Are Markups Too High? Competition, Strategic Innovation, and Industry Dynamics,”unpublished manuscript, rev. September 8,2020, https: // papers. ssrn. com/sol3 / papers. cfm? abstract_id = 3459775.
[25] Ufuk Akcigit and Sina T. Ates,“Ten Facts on Declining Business Dynamism and Lessons from Endogenous Growth Theory” （NBER Working Paper No. 25755,National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, MA, April 2019）.
[26] Philippe Aghion, Antonin Bergeaud, Timo Boppart, Peter J. Klenow, and Huiyu Li, “A Theory of Falling Growth and Rising Rents” （NBER Working Paper, No. 26448, National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, MA,November 2019）.
[27] 这一观察来自David Rezza Bagaee and Emmanuel Farhi, “Productivity and Misallocation in General Equilibrium,” Quarterly Journal of Economics 135,no. 1（2019）:105 -163; and by Jan De Loecker, Jan Eeckhout, and Gabriel Unger,“The Rise of Market Power and the Macroeconomic Implications,”Quarterly Journal of Economics 135, no. 2（2020）:561 -644.
[28] 近期的一篇论文（Tania Babina、Anastassia Fedyk、Alex He and James Hodson）提及人工智能的影响，与本章介绍的信息技术革命的作用类似。这些学者指出:（1）促进某个产业的人工智能投资的因素也会提升其产业集中度；（2）集中度的提高不是来自企业层面或给定产品线的利润增加；（3）人工智能导致企业经营的市场、产品和产业的数量增加。总体上，该研究证实人工智能对产业集中度的增进效应主要源于:超级明星企业是人工智能的最大投资者，因此业务范围的扩大也最为突出。或者说，人工智能对产业集中度和利润的增进效应是来自产业构成的变化。参见Tania Babina, Anastassia Fedyk, Alex He, and James Hodson,“Artificial Intelligence, Firm Growth, and Industry Concentration,” unpublished manuscript, rev. September 22,2020,https: // papers. ssrn. com/ sol3 / papers. cfm? abstract_id = 3651052.
[29] Richard Gilbert, Innovation Matters: Competition Policy for the High-Technology Economy （Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2020）.
[30] Richard Gilbert, Innovation Matters: Competition Policy for the High-Technology Economy （Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2020）.
