[19] Philippe Aghion, Mathias Dewatripont, and Jeremy C. Stein,“Academic Freedom, Private-Sector Focus, and the Process of Innovation,” RAND Journal of Economics 39, no. 3(2008):617 -635.
[20] 我们对大学作用的分析集中在研究上,而没有涉及教学。对这两种活动的互补性的社会学分析,可参见Pierre-Michel Menger,“Academic Work: A Tale of Essential Tension between Research and Teaching,” Sociologisk Forsking 53, no. 2(2016):175 -192.
[21] 私有化可能是避免公共品滥用的好办法。因为利益所系,私人所有者会关心资源的保护。然而,私有化可能导致产权的过分碎片化。如果众多私人利益方共享同一资源的所有权,每一方都可能妨碍其他人对其的利用,正如专利的情形所示。参见Michael A. Heller,“The Tragedy of the Anticommons: Property in the Transition from Marx to Markets,” Harvard Law Review 111, no. 3(1998):621 -688.
[22] Fiona Murray, Philippe Aghion, Mathias Dewatripont, Julian Kolev, and Scott Stern,“Of Mice and Academics: Examining the Effect of Openness on Innovation,” American Economic Journal : Economic Policy 8, no. 1(2016):212 -252.
[23] 生物学家Mario R. Capecchi、Sir Martin J. Evans和Oliver Smithies获得了2017年诺贝尔医学奖,以表彰“他们发现的利用胚胎干细胞对老鼠做特定基因改造的原理”。
[24] 致癌基因(oncogene)指可以使普通细胞转化为癌细胞的基因。
[25] 论文内容的新奇度由其包含的新的关键字的比例测算。
[26] Heidi L. Williams,“Intellectual Property Rights and Innovation: Evidence from the Human Genome,” Journal of Political Economy 121, no. 1(2013):1 -27.
[27] 事实上,同一基因可能是多个基因型-表型连接的组成部分,某个基因型-表型连接也可能涉及多个基因。
[28] Ufuk Akcigit, Douglas Hanley, and Nicolas Serrano-Velarde,“Back to Basics:Basic Research Spillovers, Innovation Policy and Growth,” Review of Economic Studies (2020), https: // doi. org/ 10.1093 / restud/ rdaa061.
[29] 不过,我们仍可以考虑帮助提高阶段0的创新者的报酬的政策。有关研究可参考Jerry Green and Suzanne Scotchmer,“On the Division of Profit in Sequential Innovation,” RAND Journal of Economics 26, no. 1(1995):20 -33.这两位学者认为,连续创新(进程中的每个阶段由不同企业完成)产生的利润应该更公平地在各个阶段之间予以分配。因此,延长阶段0的专利的有效期,可以让承担基础研究成本的企业分得更大比例的利润,最终使基础研究投资提升到更合理的水平。另可参见Suzanne Scotchmer,“Standing on the Shoulders of Giants: Cumulative Research and the Patent Law,” Journal of Economic Perspectives 5, no. 1(1991):29 -41; Suzanne Scotchmer,“Protecting Early Innovators: Should Second-Generation Products Be Patentable?” RAND Journal of Economics 27, no. 2(1996):322 -331.
[30] 这方面的一些初步回答可参见: Philippe Aghion, Mathias Dewatripont,Caroline Hoxby, Andreu Mas-Colell, and André Sapir,“Why Reform Europe's Universities?” Breugel Policy Brief 4 /2007, Brussels, 2007.