[3] Montesquieu, De l'esprit des lois （Geneva: Barrillot & fils, 1748）; Montesquieu,The Spirit of the Laws, ed. and trans. Anne M. Cohler, Basia Carolyn Miller, and Harold Samuel Stone（Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989）.
[4] Timothy Besley and Torsten Persson,“Fragile States and Development Policy,”Journal of the European Economic Association 9, no. 3（2011）:371 -398.
[5] Timothy Besley,“State Capacity and Economic Development,” Sir Arthur Lewis Distinguished Lecture, University of the West Indies, January 25,2019.
[6] Arthur Lewis,“The Slowing Down of the Engine of Growth,” Nobel Prize Lecture,December 8,1979.
[7] J. A. Schumpeter, Die Krise des Steuerstaats （Austria: Leuschner and Lubensky,1918）. Translated as J. A. Schumpeter,“The Crisis of the Tax State,” in Schumpeter, The Economics and Sociology of Capitalism, ed. Richard Swedberg,99 -140（Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1991）.
[8] Tim Besley and Torsten Persson,“Taxation and Development,” in Handbook of Public Economics, ed. A. J. Auerbach, R. Chetty, M. Feldstein, and E. Saez,vol. 5,51 -110（Amsterdam: Elsevier, 2013）.样本中的国家包括:阿根廷、澳大利亚、巴西、加拿大、智利、哥伦比亚、丹麦、芬兰、爱尔兰、日本、墨西哥、荷兰、新西兰、挪威、瑞典、瑞士、英国和美国。数据来自Brian Mitchell, International Historical Statistics, 3 vols. （London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007）.
[9] 本节的内容基于如下研究: Philippe Aghion, Xavier Jaravel, Torsten Persson,and Dorothée Rouzet,“Education and Military Rivalry,” Journal of the European Economic Association 17, no. 2（2019）:376 -412.
[10] Charles Tilly, The Formation of National States in Western Europe （Princeton:Princeton University Press, 1975）; Besley and Persson,“Fragile States and Development Policy.”
[11] 拿破仑一世在耶拿战役击败普鲁士，促使普鲁士国王大规模投资学校、大学和基础设施建设，特别是重用了洪堡兄弟。
[12] Eugen Weber, Peasants into Frenchmen : The Modernization of Rural France,1870 -1914（Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1976）.
[13] Aghion, Jaravel, Persson, and Rouzet,“Education and Military Rivalry.”
[14] Lyndon B. Johnson, The Vantage Point : Perspectives of the Presidency, 1963-1969 （New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1971）.
[15] Pierre Azoulay, Erica Fuchs, Anna P. Goldstein, and Michael Kearney,“Funding Breakthrough Research: Promises and Challenges of the ‘ ARPA Model,’” Innovation Policy and the Economy 19, no. 1（2019）:69 -96.
[16] 自上而下方式代表的程序是，政府作为决策者，把决策指示给分散的行为人。相反，自下而上的方式是指，政府确立大致的政策方向，让地方行为人决定如何实施。
[17] 1878—1890年间通过了几项反社会主义的法律。
[18] Sir William Henry Beveridge, Social Insurance and Allied Services （New York:Macmillan, 1942）.
[19] National Council of the Resistance,“Programme du Conseil national de la Résistance,” March 15,1944.
[20] 工会在全国抵抗委员会中有相当多代表，法国总工会（General Confederation of Labour, CGT）在1945年有400万会员。
[21] See Pierre Rosanvallon, La Crise de l'Etat-providence （Paris: Seuil, in collaboration with Points Politique, 1981）.
[22] 电影《阿达伦31》讲述过这一悲剧，参见Bo Widerberg, dir. , Adalen 31,Svensk Filmindustri, 1969.
[23] Yuval Noah Harari, 21 Lessons for the 21st Century （New York: Spiegel &Grau, 2018）.
[24] Monique Canto-Sperber, La Fin des libertés : Ou comment refonder le libéralisme（Paris: Robert Laffont, 2019）.
[25] Canto-Sperber, La Fin des libertés.
[26] Milton Friedman, Capitalism and Freedom （Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1962）.
[27] John M. Keynes and Hubert D. Henderson, Can Lloyd George Do It : An Examination of the Liberal Pledge （London: The Nation and Athenaeum,1929）, reprinted in John M. Keynes,“Can Lloyd George Do It?” in Essays in Persuasion, 86 -125（London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010）.
[28] John M. Keynes, The General Theory of Employment : Interest : and Money（New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, 1936）.
[29] Willie O'Dea,“Why Our Response to Crisis Isn't Wrong,” Irish Independent, January 4,2009.
[30] Philippe Aghion, George-Mario Angeletos, Abhijit Banerjee, and Kalina Manova,“Volatility and Growth: Credit Constraints and the Composition of Investment,” Journal of Monetary Economics 57, no. 3（2010）:246 -265.
[31] 量化宽松是一种财政政策，中央银行从金融机构那里购买数额庞大的债务，特别是政府债券和企业债券。
[32] Philippe Aghion, David Hémous, and Enisse Kharroubi,“Cyclical Fiscal Policy,Credit Constraints, and Industry Growth,” Journal of Monetary Economics 62（2014）:41 -58; Philippe Aghion, Emmanuel Farhi, and Enisse Kharroubi,“Monetary Policy, Product Market Competition and Growth,” Economica 86,no. 343（2019）:431 -470.
[33] 自动稳定器是指税收和政府支出针对经济条件的变化而调整，不需要经过任何立法行动。例如在经济扩张期，由于消费和就业增加，政府的所得税和工薪税收入也会增加，失业金等转移支付项目的支出则会减少。相反在经济衰退期，政府的税收减少与福利支出增加将有助于维持经济活动。
[34] Céline Antonin,“La fatalité grecque: un scénario prévisible?” Lettre de l'OFCE 323, September 21,2010,1 -4, https: // halshs. archives-ouvertes. fr/ hal 01023902 /.
[35] Département analyse et prévision de l'OFCE,“?valuation de l'impact économique de la pandémie de COVID-19 et des mesures de confinement sur l'économie mondiale en avril 2020,” OFCE Policy Brief, no. 69, June 2020.
[36] 危机之后出现的一个共识是，监管机构应该把宏观审慎的内容纳入考虑。《巴塞尔协议Ⅲ》不仅强化了对资本金的要求，还加入了反周期缓冲，占资产总额的0~2.5%。《巴塞尔协议Ⅲ》允许在借款加速时期提高资本金要求，在经济下滑期放松要求。
