1. “DNA Sequencing Costs,” National Human Genome Research Institute, NIH, http:// www. genome. gov/ sequencingcosts/.
2. “Genetic Sequence Data Bank, Distribution Release Notes,” December 15, 2009, National Center for Biotechnology Information, National Library of Medicine, ftp:// ftp. ncbi. nih. gov/ genbank/ gbrel. txt.
3. “DNA Sequencing— The History of DNA Sequencing,” January 2, 2012, http:// www. dnasequencing. org/ history-of-dna.
4. “Cooper’s Law,” ArrayComm, http:// www. arraycomm. com/ technology/coopers - law.
5. “The Zettabyte Era,” Cisco, http:// www. cisco. com/ en/ US/ solutions/ collateral / ns341/ ns525/ ns537/ ns705/ ns827/ VNI_ Hyperconnectivity_ WP. html, and “Number of Internet Hosts,” Internet Systems Consortium, http:// www. isc. org/ solutions / survey/ history.
6. TeleGeography . PriMetrica, Inc., 2012.
7. Dave Kristula, “The History of the Internet” (March 1997, update August 2001), http:// www. davesite. com/ webstation/ net- history. shtml; Robert Zakon, “Hobbes’ Internet Timeline v8. 0,” http:// www. zakon. org/ robert/ internet/ timeline; Quest Communications, 8-K for 9/ 13/ 1998 EX-99. 1; Converge! Network Digest, December 5, 2002, http:// www. convergedigest. com/ Daily/ daily. asp vn= v9n229& fecha= December% 2005,% 202002; Jim Duff y, “AT& T Plans Backbone Upgrade to 40G,” Computerworld, June 7, 2006, http:// www. computerworld. com/ action/ article . do command= viewArticleBasic& articleId= 9001032; “40G: The Fastest Connection You Can Get” InternetNews. com, November 2, 2007, http://www. internetnews . com/ infra/ article. php/ 3708936; “Verizon First Global Service Provider to Deploy 100G on U. S. Long- Haul Network,” news release, Verizon, http:// newscenter . verizon. com/ press- releases/ verizon/ 2011/ verizon- fi rst- global- service. html.
8. Facebook, “Key Facts,” http:// newsroom. fb . com/ content/ default. aspx NewsArea Id= 22.
9. http:// www. kurzweilai. net/ how-my- predictions- are- faring.
10.1000美元每秒的计算量。
年 份
1000美元每秒的计算量
机 器
对应的自然对数值
1900
5. 82E-06
Analytical Engine（分析机）
-12. 05404
1908
1. 30E-04
Hollerith Tabulator（霍尔瑞斯制表机）
-8. 948746
1911
5. 79E-05
Monroe Calculator（门罗计算器）
-9. 757311
1919
1. 06E-03
IBM Tabulator（IBM制表机）
-6. 84572
1928
6. 99E-04
National Ellis 3000
-7. 265431
1939
8. 55E-03
Zuse 2（Z-2电磁式计算机）
-4. 762175
1940
1. 43E-02
Bell Calculator Model 1（贝尔模型机1）
-4. 246797
1941
4. 63E-02
Zuse 3（Z-3电磁式计算机）
-3. 072613
1943
5. 31E+ 00
Colossus（巨人电脑）
1. 6692151
1946
7. 98E-01
ENIAC（埃尼亚克)
-0. 225521
1948
3. 70E-01
IBM SSEC(IBM顺序电子计算器)
-0. 994793
1949
1. 84E+ 00
BINAC(二进制自动计算机)
0. 6081338
1949
1. 04E+ 00
EDSAC(电子延时储存自动计算器)
0. 0430595
1951
1. 43E+ 00
Univac I(通用自动计算机一号)
0. 3576744
1953
6. 10E+ 00
Univac 1103
1. 8089443
1953
1. 19E+ 01
IBM 701(IBM 701型计算机)
2. 4748563
1954
3. 67E-01
EDVAC(电子数据计算机)
-1. 002666
1955
1. 65E+ 01
Whirlwind(旋风计算机)
2. 8003255
1955
3. 44E+ 00
IBM 704
1. 2348899
1958
3. 26E-01
Datamatic 1000
-1. 121779
1958
9. 14E-01
Univac II
-0. 089487
1960
1. 51E+ 00
IBM 1620
0. 4147552
1960
1. 52E+ 02
DEC PDP-1
5. 0205856
1961
2. 83E+ 02
DEC PDP-4
5. 6436786
1962
2. 94E+ 01
Univac III
3. 3820146
1964
1. 59E+ 02
CDC 6600
5. 0663853
1965
4. 83E+ 02
IBM 1130
6. 1791882
1965
1. 79E+ 03
DEC PDP-8
7.4910876
1966
4. 97E+ 01
IBM 360 Model 75
3. 9064073
1968
2. 14E+ 02
DEC PDP-10
5. 3641051
1973
7. 29E+ 02
Intellec-8
6. 5911249
1973
3. 40E+ 03
Data General Nova
8. 1318248
1975
1. 06E+ 04
Altair 8800
9. 2667207
1976
7. 77E+ 02
DEC PDP-11 Model 70
6. 6554404
1977
3. 72E+ 03
Cray 1
8. 2214789
1977
2. 69E+ 04
Apple II
10. 198766
1979
1. 11E+ 03
DEC VAX 11 Model 780
7. 0157124
1980
5. 62E+ 03
Sun-1
8. 6342649
1982
1. 27E+ 05
IBM PC
11. 748788
1982
1. 27E+ 05
Compaq Portable
11. 748788
1983
8. 63E+ 04
IBM AT-80286
11. 365353
1984
8. 50E+ 04
Apple Macintosh
11. 350759
1986
5. 38E+ 05
Compaq Deskpro 386
13. 195986
1987
2. 33E+ 05
Apple Mac II
12. 357076
1993
3. 55E+ 06
Pentium PC
15. 082176
1996
4. 81E+ 07
Pentium PC
17. 688377
1998
1. 33E+ 08
Pentium II PC
18. 708113
1999
7. 03E+ 08
Pentium III PC
20. 370867
2000
1. 09E+ 08
IBM ASCI White
18. 506858
2000
3. 40E+ 08
Power Macintosh G4/ 500
19. 644456
2003
2. 07E+ 09
Power Macintosh G5 2. 0
21. 450814
2004
3. 49E+ 09
Dell Dimension 8400
21. 973168
2005
6. 36E+ 09
Power Mac G5 Quad
22. 573294
2008
3. 50E+ 10
Dell XPS 630
24. 278614
2008
2. 07E+ 10
Mac Pro
23. 7534
2009
1. 63E+ 10
Intel Core i7 Desktop
23. 514431
2010
5. 32E+ 10
Intel Core i7 Desktop
24. 697324
11. Top 500 Supercomputer Sites, http:// top500. org/.
12. “Microprocessor Quick Reference Guide,” Intel Research, http:// www. intel . com/ pressroom/ kits/ quickreff am. htm.
13. 1971– 2000: VLSI Research Inc.
2001– 2006: The International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors, 2002 Update and 2004 Update, Table 7a, “ Cost— Near- term Years,” “DRAM cost/ bit at (packaged microcents) at production.”
2007– 2008: The International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors, 2007,Tables 7a and 7b, “ Cost— Near- term Years,” “ Cost— Long- term Years,” http://www. itrs. net/ Links/ 2007ITRS/ ExecSum2007. pdf.
2009– 2022: The International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors, 2009,Tables 7a and 7b, “ Cost— Near- term Years,” “ Cost— Long- term Years,” http://www. itrs. net/ Links/ 2009ITRS/ Home2009. htm.
14. To make all dollar values comparable, computer prices for all years were converted to their year 2000 dollar equivalent using the Federal Reserve Board’s CPI data at http:// minneapolisfed. org/ research/ data/ us/ calc/. For example, $1 million in 1960 is equivalent to $5. 8 million in 2000, and $1 million in 2004 is equivalent to $0. 91 million in 2000.
1949: http:// www. cl. cam. ac. uk/ UoCCL/ misc/ EDSAC99/ statistics. html, http:// www. davros. org/ misc/ chronology. html.
1951: Richard E. Matick, Computer Storage Systems and Technology (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1977); http:// inventors. about. com/ library/ weekly / aa062398. htm.
1955: Matick, Computer Storage Systems and Technology; OECD, 1968, http:// members. iinet. net. au/~dgreen/ timeline. html. 1949: http:// www. cl. cam. ac. uk/ UoCCL/ misc/ EDSAC99/ statistics. html, http://www. davros. org/ misc/ chronology. html.
1960: ftp:// rtfm. mit. edu/ pub/ usenet/ alt. sys. pdp8/ PDP- 8_ Frequently_ Asked_ Questions_% 28posted_ every_ other_ month% 29; http:// www. dbit. com/~greeng3 / pdp1/ pdp1. html#INTRODUCTION.
1962: ftp:// rtfm. mit. edu/ pub/ usenet/ alt. sys. pdp8/ PDP- 8_ Frequently_ Asked _ Questions_% 28posted_ every_ other_ month% 29.
1964: Matick, Computer Storage Systems and Technology; http:// www. research .microsoft . com/ users/ gbell/ craytalk; http:// www. ddj. com/ documents/ s= 1493/ ddj 0005hc/.
1965: Matick, Computer Storage Systems and Technology; http:// www. fourmilab . ch/ documents/ univac/ config1108. html; http:// www. frobenius. com/ univac. htm.
1968: Data General.
1969, 1970: http:// www. eetimes. com/ special/ special_ issues/ millennium/ mile stones/ whittier. html.
1974: Scientifi c Electronic Biological Computer Consulting (SCELBI).
1975–1996: Byte magazine advertisements.
1997– 2000: PC Computing magazine advertisements.
2001: www. pricewatch. com (http:// www. jc-news. com/ parse. cgi news/ price watch/ raw/ pw-010702).
2002: www. pricewatch. com (http:// www. jc-news. com/ parse. cgi news/ price watch/ raw/ pw-020624).
2003: http:// sharkyextreme. com/ guides/ WMPG/ article. php/ 10706_ 2227191_ 2.
2004: http:// www. pricewatch. com (11/ 17/ 04).
2008: http:// www. pricewatch. com (10/ 02/ 08) ($16. 61).
15.迪讯/英特尔和开拓者的研究:
年 份
$
Log （$）
1968
1.00000000
1969
0.85000000
-0.16252
1970
0.60000000
-0.51083
1971
0.30000000
-1.20397
1972
0.15000000
-1.89712
1973
0.10000000
-2.30259
1974
0.07000000
-2.65926
1975
0.02800000
-3.57555
1976
0.01500000
-4.19971
1977
0.00800000
-4.82831
1978
0.00500000
-5.29832
1979
0.00200000
-6.21461
1980
0.00130000
-6.64539
1981
0.00082000
-7.10621
1982
0.00040000
-7.82405
1983
0.00032000
-8.04719
1984
0.00032000
-8.04719
1985
0.00015000
-8.80488
1986
0.00009000
-9.31570
1987
0.00008100
-9.42106
1988
0.00006000
-9.72117
1989
0.00003500
-10.2602
1990
0.00002000
-10.8198
1991
0.00001700
-10.9823
1992
0.00001000
-11.5129
1993
0.00000900
-11.6183
1994
0.00000800
-11.7361
1995
0.00000700
-11.8696
1996
0.00000500
-12.2061
1997
0.00000300
-12.7169
1998
0.00000140
-13.4790
1999
0.00000095
-13.8668
2000
0.00000080
-14.0387
2001
0.00000035
-14.8653
2002
0.00000026
-15.1626
2003
0.00000017
-15.5875
2004
0.00000012
-15.9358
2005
0.000000081
-16.3288
2006
0.000000063
-16.5801
2007
0.000000024
-17.5452
2008
0.000000016
-17.9507
16.史蒂夫·库伦，In-Stat调查，2008年9月，www. instat. com.
年 份
兆字节
字 节
1971
921.6
9.216E+08
1972
3788.8
3.789E+09
1973
8294.4
8.294E+09
1974
19865.6
1.987E+10
1975
42700.8
4.270E+10
1976
130662.4
1.307E+11
1977
276070.4
2.761E+11
1978
663859.2
6.639E+11
1979
1438720.0
1.439E+12
1980
3172761.6
3.173E+12
1981
4512665.6
4.513E+12
1982
11520409.6
1.152E+13
1983
29648486.4
2.965E+13
1984
68418764.8
6.842E+13
1985
87518412.8
8.752E+13
1986
192407142.4
1.924E+14
1987
255608422.4
2.556E+14
1988
429404979.2
4.294E+14
1989
631957094.4
6.320E+14
1990
950593126.4
9.506E+14
1991
1546590618
1.547E+15
1992
2845638656
2.846E+15
1993
4177959322
4.178E+15
1994
7510805709
7.511E+15
1995
13010599936
1.301E+16
1996
23359078007
2.336E+16
1997
45653879161
4.565E+16
1998
85176878105
8.518E+16
1999
1.47327E+11
1.473E+17
2000
2.63636E+11
2.636E+17
2001
4.19672E+11
4.197E+17
2002
5.90009E+11
5.900E+17
2003
8.23015E+11
8.230E+17
2004
1.32133E+12
1.321E+18
2005
1.9946E+12
1.995E+18
2006
2.94507E+12
2.945E+18
2007
5.62814E+12
5.628E+18
17. “Historical Notes about the Cost of Hard Drive Storage Space,” http:// www.littletechshoppe. com/ ns1625/ winchest. html; Byte magazine advertisements, 1977– 1998; PC Computing magazine advertisements, 3/ 1999; Understanding Computers: Memory and Storage (New York: Time Life, 1990); http:// www. ced magic. com/ history/ ibm- 305- ramac. html; John C. McCallum, “Disk Drive Prices ( 1955– 2012),” http:// www. jcmit. com/ diskprice. htm; IBM, “Frequently Asked Questions,” http:// www-03. ibm. com/ ibm/ history/ documents/ pdf/ faq. pdf; IBM, “IBM 355 Disk Storage Unit,” http:// www-03. ibm. com/ ibm/ history/ exhibits / storage/ storage_ 355. html; IBM, “IBM 3380 Direct Access Storage Device,” http://www.03-ibm. com/ ibm/ history/ exhibits/ storage/ storage_ 3380. html.
18. “Without Driver or Map, Vans Go from Italy to China,” Sydney Morning Herald, October 29, 2010, http:// www. smh. com. au/ technology/ technology- news/without - driver-or- map- vans-go- from- italy-to- china- 20101029- 176ja. html.
19. KurzweilAI.net.
20.此处引用征得了两位作者阿米拉姆·格林瓦尔德和里娜·希尔德斯海姆的同意，“VSDI: A New Era in Functional Imaging of Cortical Dynamics,” Nature Reviews Neuroscience 5 (November 2004): 874–85。
大脑成像的主要工具如图10—14所示。它们的能力由带阴影的矩形柱描绘。
空间分辨率指的是借助一项技术可以测量的最小规格。时间分辨率指的是成像时间或其持续时间。对每项技术都需要进行权衡。例如，用于测量“脑电波”（来自神经元的电信号）的脑电图（EEG）可测量（在极短的时间间隔中发生的）高速脑电波，但只能感测大脑表层附近的信号。
相比之下，磁共振成像（功能性磁共振成像）利用特殊的磁共振成像仪测量通过神经元的血液流动（显示神经元的活动），它可以检测大脑（和骨髓）的更深部位，且具有更高的分辨率，精确至数十微米（百万分之一米）。不过，功能磁共振成像相比脑电图而言运行速度更为缓慢。
这些都是非侵入性技术（无需任何手术或药物）。脑磁图（MEG）是另一种非侵入性技术。它能监测神经元所产生的磁场。MEG和EEG的时间分辨率最低可以达到1毫秒，性能优于功能磁共振成像，从而能以最好的水平对几百毫秒内的活动进行处理。MEG还能在初级听觉、体感和运动区的输入源实行精准定位。
光学成像技术几乎覆盖了所有空间分辨率和时间分辨率的范围，不过是侵入性的。电压敏感染料（VSDI）是测量大脑活动的最灵敏的方法，但是仅限于动物皮质表面附近的测量。
暴露的皮质覆盖有一个透明的密封腔室；用合适的电压敏感染料为皮质染色后，会在光照下显示出来，图像序列可以被高速摄像机拍摄下来。实验室中使用的其他光学技术包括离子成像（通常利用钙或钠离子）和荧光成像系统（聚焦成像和多光子成像）。
实验室使用的其他技术还有正电子放射断层造影术（PET，它是一种核医学成像技术，可以产生3D图像），2-脱氧葡萄糖法（2DG，或称组织分析），损伤技术（涉及破坏动物的神经元以及观察其效果），膜片钳技术（用以测量跨生物膜的离子电流），以及电子显微镜技术（使用电子束精确检测组织或细胞）。这些技术也可以与光学成像技术综合使用。
21.磁共振成像技术的空间分辨率，精确到微米(μm)，1980– 2012：
年 份
分辨率（单位：微米）
引用出处
URL
2012
125
“运用磁共振成像染色技术定量研究脑白质的特征”
http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1089/brain.2011.0071
2010
200
“高磁场MRI与脑解剖研究：最新进展”
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.mri.2010.02.007
2010
250
“处于7T的人脑的高分辨率相控阵MRI：多发性硬化症患者的初期经验”
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1552-6569.2008.00338.x
1994
1000
“映射人体内大脑活动”
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1011409/
