"Things being investigated, only then did their knowledge become extend-ed. Their knowledge being extended, only then did their thought become sincere. Their thought being sincere, only then did their mind become recti-fied. Their mind being rectified, only then did their selves become cultivat-ed. Their selves being cultivated, only then did their families become regu-lated. Their families being regulated, only then did their states become right-ly governed. Their states being rightly governed, only then could the world be at peace."
These statements have been known as the three "main cords" and eight minor wires of the Ta Hsiieh. According to later Confuciarnsts, the three eords really comprise only one cord, which is to manifest one s illustrious virtue." "To love the people" is the way "to manifest one s illustrious virtue, while to rest in the highest good is to manifest one s illustrious virtue" in the highest perfection.
The "eight wires" are likewise really only one wire, which is the cultiva-tion of one' s own self. In the above quotation, the steps preceding the culti-vation of the self, such as the investigation of things, extension of knowledge, etc., are the ways and means for cultivating the self. And the steps following the cultivation of the self, such as the regulation of the family, etc., are the ways and means for cultivating the self to its highest perfection, or as the text says, for "resting in the highest good." Man cannot develop his nature to perfection unless he tries his best to do his duties in society. He cannot per-fect himself without at the same time perfecting others.
"To manifest one's illustrious virtue ' is the same as "to cultivate one s self. The former is merely the content of the latter. Thus several ideas are
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reduced to a single idea, which is central in Confucianism.
It is unnecessary that one should be head of a state or of some world or-ganization, before one can do something to bring good order to the state and peace to the world. One should merely do one s best to do good for the state as a member of the state, and do good for the world as a member of the world. One is then doing one s full share of bringing good order to the state and peace to the world. By thus sincerely trying to do one's best, one is resting in the highest good.
For the purpose of the present chapter, it is enough to point out that the author of the Ta Hsileh was thinking in terms of world politics and world peace. He was not the first to think in this way, but it is significant that he did it so systematically. For him, the good order of one' s own state is neither the final goal in terms of politics nor in terms of the spiritual cultivation of the self.
Here we need not discuss the problem of how the investigation of things can be the ways and means for the spiritual cultivation of the self. This problem will return to us when we take up Neo-Confucianism later.
Eclectic Tendency in the Hstin—tzu
In the world of Chinese philosophy, the latter part of the third century B. C. saw a strong tendency towards syncretism and eclecticism. The major work of the School of Eclectics, the Lu-shih Ch'un-ch'iu, was composed at that time. But, although this work devoted chapters to most of the schools of its time, it failed to give a theoretical justification for the idea of eclecticism as such. Both Confucianist and Taoist writers, however, did present such a theory, which shows how, despite their other differences, they both reflected the eclectic spirit of the time.
These writers agreed that there is a single absolute Truth which they called the Too. Most of the different schools have seen some one particular aspect of the Too, and in this sense have made some contribution to its manifestation. The Confucianist writers, however, maintained that it was Confucius who had seen the whole Truth, and so the other schools were sub-ordinate to the Confucian school, though in a sense complementary to it. The Taoist writers, on the contrary, maintained that it was Lao Tzu and Chuang Tzu who had seen the whole Truth, and therefore that Taoism was superior to all other schools.
In the Hsiin-tzu there is a chapter titled On Freedom from Blindness,' in which we read:
In the past, the traveling scholars were blinded, so they had different schools of thought. Mo Tzu was blinded by utility and did not know the val-ue of culture. Sung Tzu [a contemporary of Mencius, who maintained that the desires of men are really very fewj was blinded by desire, but did not know [that men seek for] gain. Shen Tzu [Shen Tao, a member of the Le-
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galist school] was blinded by law but did not know [the value ofj talent. Shen Tzu LShen Puhai, another member of the Leyalist school] was blinded by authority but did not know wisdom. Hui Tzu [Hui Shih of the shool of Names] was blinded by words but did not know facts. Chuang Tzu was blinded by what is of nature but did not know what is of man.
From the point oi view of utility, the Tao is nothing more than seeking for profit. From the point of view of L fewness of] desires, the Tao is nothing more than satisfaction. From the point of view of law, the Too is nothing more than regulations. From the point of view of authority, the Tao is nothing more than caprice. From the point of view of what is of nature, the Tao is nothing more than laissez-faire. From the point of view of words, the Tao is nothing more than argumentation.
These different views are single aspects of the Tao. The essence of the Too is constant and includes all changes. It cannot be grasped by a single corner. Those with perverted knowledge who see only a single aspect of the Tao will not be able to comprehend its totality....Confucius was human — hearted and wise and was not blinded. Therefore he comprehended the Tao and was sufficient to be ranked with the early rulers." (Ch. II.)
In another chapter Hsiin Tzu says: Lao Tzu had vision regarding acqui-escence, but did not see exertion. Mo Tzu had vision regarding uniformity, but did not see individuality. Sung Tzu had vision regarding [the fact that the desires of some men are] few, but did not see [the fact that those of other men are] many." (Ch. 17.) According to Hsiin Tzu, the vision and blindness of a philosopher go together. He has vision, yet usually at the same time is blinded by his vision. Hence the excellence of his philosophy is at the same time its shortcoming.
Eclectic Tendency in the Chuang—tzu
The author of the last chapter of the Chuang-tzu, T ien Hsia or "The World," gives the Taoist view of syncretism. This chapter is really a summa-rized account of ancient Chinese philosophy. We are not sure who the author was, but he was certainly one of the best historians and critics of early Chi-nese philosophy.
This chapter first makes a distinction between the whole Truth and partial truth. The whole Truth is the Tao of "sageliness within and kingliness with-out," the study of which is called "the Tao method.' Partial truth is a par-ticular aspect of the whole Truth, the study of which is called the art method." This chapter says: "In the world there are many who use the art method. Each one considers his own L thought J as perfect without need of any addition. Where is there then what the ancients called the Tao method?...There is that by which the sage flourishes; there is that through which the king completes his achievement. Both originate in the One."
The One is the "7
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chapter goes on to make a distinction between the fundamental and the branch, the fine and the coarse, in the Tao. It says: How perfect were the men of old....They understood the fundamental principles and connected them with minute regulations reaching to all points of the compass, embrac-ing the great and the small, the fine and the coarse; their influence was ev-erywhere.
"Some of their teachings which were correctly embodied in measures and institutions are still preserved in ancient laws and the records of historians. Those teachings that were recorded in the books of Poetry; History, Rites, and Music were known to most of the gentlemen and teachers of [the states of] Tsou and Lu [i.e., the Confucianists]. The Book of Poetry describes aims; the Book of History describes events; the Rites direct conduct; Music secures harmony. The Yi [ Book of Changes J shows the principles of the Yin and Yang. The Ch'un Ch'iu [Spring and Autumn Annals] shows names and duties."
Thus the T'ien Hsia chapter maintains that the Confucianists had some connection with the Tao. But what they knew is confined to "measures and institutions. They knew nothing about the underlying principle. That is to say, they knew only the coarser aspects and lesser branches of the Tao, but not what is fine and fundamental in it.
The T ien Hsia chapter continues by saying: Now the world is in great disorder. The virtuous and the sage are obscured. Tao and virtue lose their unity and many in the world get hold of some one aspect of the whole to enjoy for themselves. The case is like the senses of hearing, sight, smell, and taste, which have specific functions, but cannot be interchanged. Or like the skill of the various artisans, which are each excellent in its kind and useful in its turn, yet are not comprehensive. Each is a student of some one aspect....Thus the Tan of sageliness within and kingliness without becomes obscured and los-es its clearness; it becomes repressed and loses its development.
Then the same treatise makes a classification of the different schools, granting to each that it has "heard" of some one aspect of the Tao, but at the same time making sharp criticisms of the school s shortcomings. Lao Tzu and Chuang Tzu are greatly admired. Yet, remarkably enough, these two leaders of Taoism, like the other schools, are by implication criticized by the remark that they, too, have merely "heard some one aspect of the Too."
It thus seems to be the implication of the T ien Hsia chapter that the Confucianists knew the concrete "measures and institutions" but not their underlying principle, whereas the Taoisls knew the principle but not the measures and institutions. In other words, the Confucianists knew the "branches" of the Tao, but not its fundamental aspect, while the Taoists knew its fundamental aspect, but not its branches. Only a combination of the two constitutes the whole Truth.
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Eclecticism of Ssu—Ma T an and Liu Hsin
This eclectic tendency was continued in the Han dynasty. The Huai—nan-tzu or Book of the Prince of Huai—nan is a book of the same nature as the Ltt-shih Ch'un-ch'iu, though with a stronger tendency towards Taoism. In addition to this book, the two historians, Ssu-ma Tan (died IIO B.C.) and Liu Hsin (ca. 46 B.C-A.D. 23), who have been quoted in chapter three, also display eclectic tendencies. Of them, Ssu-ma Tan was a Taoist. In the es-say quoted in chapter three,"On the Essentials of the Six Schools," he says: "In the Great Appendix [_ 'Appendix III J of the Yi, there is the state-ment: 'In the world there is one purpose, but there are a hundred ideas about it; there is a single goal, but the paths toward it differ.' This is just the case with the different schools of thought,...all of which seek social order but follow widely different paths in their words of explanation, some of which are clear and others not." (Historical Records, ch. 130.) He then goes on to mention the excellencies and shortcomings of the six philosophic schools, but concludes by considering Taoism as combining all the best points of the oth-er schools, and therefore as being superior to all.
Liu Hsin, on the other hand, was a Confucianist. In his Seven Summaries, as quoted in the chapter on literature contained in the History of the Former Han Dynasty, he lists ten schools of thought, and quotes the same passage from "Appendix 111" of the Book of Changes as does Ssu-ma Tan. Then he concludes: Each of the schools developed its strong points; and each devel-oped knowledge and investigation to the utmost in order to sel forth clearly its main purposes. Although they had prejudices and shortcomings, still a summary of their teachings shows that they were branches and descendants of the Liu Yi (Six Classics)....If one were able to cultivate the Liu Yi and ob-serve the sayings of the nine schools [omitting that of the Story Tellers as of no philosophical importance J, discarding their errors and gathering their good points, it would be possible to master the manifold aspects of thought. (History of the Former Han Dynasty, ch. 30.)
All these statements reflect the strong desire for unity that existed even in the world of thought. The people of the third century B.C., discouraged by centuries of inter -state warfare, longed for a political unification; their philosophers, consequently, also tried to bring about a unification in thought. Electicism was the first attempt. Eclecticism in itself, however, cannot build a unified system. The eclectics believed in the whole Truth, and hoped by selecting from the various schools their "strong points," tn attain to this Truth or Too. What they called the Too, however, was, it is to be feared, simply a patch-work of many disparate elements, unconnected by any un-derlying organic principle, and hence unworthy of the high title they at-tached to it.
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Note on the Chinese concept of Nationalism(seezp.2.cfj)
Dr. Derk Bodde writes: I would question this statement. The Six Dynas-ties (third through sixth century), Yuan (12.80-1367) and Ch'ing (1644-1911) periods, for example, were in actual fact of so long duration as to accustom the Chinese to the idea of disunity or foreign domination, even though such a situation was in theory regarded as abnormal. Moreover, even in the nor-mal periods of unity, there was often extensive political maneuvering and military action against a succession of outside peoples, such as the Hsiung-nu, as well as against occasional rebels within the empire. 1 would hardly re-gard the present conditions as presenting an unfamiliar situation to the Chi-nese, therefore, even though their effects are accentuated by the fact that they operate on a truly worldwide scale.
The historical facts which Dr. Bodde mention are no doubt correct, but what concerns me in this paragraph is not these historical facts themselves, but what the Chinese people up to the end of the last century, or even the beginning of this century, have felt about them. The emphasis upon the for-eign domination of the Yuan and Ch ing dynasties is one made from the point of view of modern nationalism. It is true that from early limes the Chi-nese have made a sharp distinction between Chung Kuo or hua hsia (Chi-nese) and yi ti (barbarian), but the emphasis of this distinction is more cul-tural than racial. The Chinese have traditionally considered that there are three kinds of living beings: Chinese, barbarians, and beasts. Of these, the Chinese are most cultured, the barbarians come next, and the beasts are completely uncultured.
